Acta Comportamentalia

Effects of qualitatively varied reinforcement on response rate in rats

Se compararon los efectos del reforzamiento cualitativamente variado y del reforzamiento constante sobre la tasa de respuesta en una palanca empleando a ratas como sujetos. En el Experimento 1, se expuso a ratas a un programa múltiple de tres componentes durante los cuales se reforzaron las presiones a una palanca conforme a un programa de intervalo variable 60 s. Durante dos componentes de reforzamiento constante, se entregó leche o comida. Durante el componente de reforzamiento variado, se entregó la leche o la comida de manera aleatoria. En el Experimento 2, se condujeron tres tipos de sesiones, durante las cuales estuvo en efecto un programa de intervalo variable 60 s. Durante el primer tipo de sesión, se entregó la leche, durante el segundo tipo se entregó la comida y durante el tercer tipo se entregó la leche y la comida. El orden de las sesiones se eligió al azar diariamente. En ambos experimentos, la tasa de respuesta fue mayor cuando se entregó sólo la leche que cuando se entregaron los reforzadores variados. Se concluyó que las variaciones cualitativas del reforzador no necesariamente resultan en aumentos en la tasa de respuesta relativas al reforzamiento constante. El efecto aditivo del reforzamiento variado sobre la tasa de respuesta depende de manipulaciones experimentales específicas.

This study compared the effects of constant versus qualitatively varied reinforcers on rate of lever pressing using rats as subjects. In Experiment 1, rats were exposed to a 3-component multiple schedule, in which responses were maintained by variable-interval 60-s schedules of reinforcement. During two constantreinforcer components, either sweetened condensed milk or pellets were delivered. In the varied reinforcer component, milk or pellets were delivered in irregular order. In Experiment 2, lever presses were maintained by a variable-interval 60-s schedule during three session types. In one session type, pellets were delivered. In a second session type, milk was delivered and in the third session type milk or pellets were delivered in irregular order. The type of session was randomly selected at the beginning of each day. In both experiments, response rates maintained by milk were generally higher than response rates maintained by varied reinforcers. Qualitatively different reinforcers do not necessarily maintain higher response rates than those maintained by constant reinforcers. The summative effect of qualitatively different reinforcers on response rates depends on specifi c experimental arrangements.

Rule Control: Effects of Questions, Suggestions and Orders

Investigando se o seguir regras depende de se o ouvinte discrimina ou não a discrepância regras/contingências e se este comportamento depende das propriedades formais da regra, 24 estudantes universitários foram expostos a um procedimento de escolha de acordo com o modelo. A tarefa era apontar para os estímulos de comparação em sequência. Os estudantes foram distribuídos em quatro condições. Em cada condição, na Fase 1, a sequência correta era modelada e depois mantida em esquema razão fixa. Nas Fases 2 e 3, as contingências eram mantidas inalteradas, enquanto as regras eram manipuladas. Na Fase 1 das Condições 1 e 3, eram feitas perguntas acerca das contingências. Nas Condições 2 e 4, não eram feitas perguntas. Nas Condições 1 e 2, a Fase 2 era iniciada com a sugestão e a Fase 3, com a ordem. Nas Condições 3 e 4, era o inverso. Na Condição 1, 5 dos 6 participantes não seguiram a sugestão na Fase 2. Na Condição 4, os 5 participantes seguiram a ordem na Fase 2. Nas Condições 2 e 3 houve variabilidade nos resultados. Sugere-se que a manutenção, ou não, do seguir regras discrepantes depende, em parte, da discriminação da discrepância regras/contingências e das propriedades formais da regra.

Some authors agree that manipulations of formal properties of rules, as well as questions about the behavior which produces reinforcement, can interfere in rule-following. However, few studies have investigated experimentally these possibilities. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of an experimental history of reinforcement on subsequent following of a rule discrepant from the contingencies, when such rules are presented either in the form of an order or suggestion, and the participants are, or are not, asked to answer questions about the contingencies. Twenty four undergraduate students were exposed to a matching-tosample procedure. In each trial, one sample and three comparison stimuli were presented to the participant, who had to point to the comparison stimuli in a sequence. The students were distributed into four conditions. Each condition, composed by six participants, had three phases. In Phase 1 of all four conditions, the correct sequence was shaped by their consequences (points exchangeable for money) and maintained in a fixed ratio schedule (FR 4). In Phases 2 and 3, the contingencies were maintained with no changes, but the formal properties of the discrepant rules were manipulated. The four conditions differed regarding to the presentation, or not, of questions in Phase 1; and, regarding the presentation of the rule in form of a suggestion and an order in Phases 2 and 3. In the beginning of Conditions 1 and 3, the participants were exposed to questions about the correct sequence and the operative reinforcement schedule. In Conditions 2 and 4, no questions were asked. In Conditions 1 and 2, Phase 2 began with the suggestion and Phase 3 with the order. In Conditions 3 and 4, Phase 2 began with the order and Phase 3 with the suggestion. Phase 1 ended after obtaining four consecutive points in FR 4, as long as the participant had obtained a minimum of 16 points. Phases 2 and 3 ended after 80 trials. Twenty two participants reached the criterion which ended Phase 1 and were exposed to the following phases. In Condition 1, 5 out of 6 participants finished Phase 2 not following the suggestion. In Phase 3, all six participants finished without following the order. In Condition 2, 3 participants followed and 3 did not follow both the suggestion (Phase 2) and the order (Phase 3). In Condition 3, 3 out of 5 participants followed the order in Phase 2 and all 5 did not follow the suggestion in Phase 3. In Condition 4, all 5 participants followed the order in Phase 2 and 4 out of 5 followed the suggestion in Phase 3. It is suggested that the maintenance or not of following discrepant rules depends, in part of: 1) if the listener discriminates the discrepancy between the consequences described in the rule and the consequences produced by rule following; and, 2) the formal properties of the rule.

Effects of training order and transfer of functions on ordinal relations in deaf people

O presente estudo verificou os efeitos da ordem de ensino e da transferência de funções sobre relações ordinais em crianças surdas. Doze crianças surdas foram distribuídas em dois grupos experimentais. No Grupo 1 a tarefa era ordenar os estímulos com base na numerosidade, e em seguida ordenar outros estímulos sem ter por base a numerosidade. No Grupo 2 os participantes eram expostos à ordem inversa. No procedimento de ensino informatizado, a tela do computador era dividida em "área de escolha", onde os estímulos eram apresentados aos pares, e "área de construção", onde os estímulos eram dispostos lado a lado após a seleção. Respostas corretas produziam uma animação na tela, após completar a seqüência. Caso contrário, a tela escurecia por 2 s. Após revisão da linha de base, eram apresentados testes de transitividade e conectividade. Todos os participantes atingiram o critério de acerto e foram capazes de formar novas seqüências, com alguma variabilidade inter e intra-sujeitos. Nos testes de conectividade, os participantes do Grupo 1 apresentaram um responder mais consistente com a linha de base. Houve transferência de funções ordinais para os novos estímulos, demonstrando-se a eficácia do procedimento de sobreposição no estabelecimento de classes de estímulos ordinais equivalentes.

Previous studies have investigated the experimental control over ordinal relations by using overlapping techniques with numerical stimuli. The present work investigated the effects of the order of training and transfer of functions over ordinal relations in deaf children. Twelve hearing-impaired children distributed into two experimental groups served as participants. In Group 1 participants had to product ordinal sequences based on numerosity, and then product ordinal sequences with no numerosity base. Group 2 had to perform the same tasks but beginning with no numerosity based sequences. Computerized procedures showed a screen divided in "choosing area", where pair of stimuli were presented, and "construction area" where stimuli selected by participants appeared side by side. Correct response produced an animated cartoon on the screen after the sequence had been completed; otherwise a blanked screen appeared for 2 seconds. Transitivity and connectedness tests were run after a baseline revision. All participants reached the criterion and formed new sequences but with some inter- and within-subjects variability. In connectedness tests group 1 showed a more consistent performance. Transfer of ordinal functions to new stimuli was documented, thus showing efficacy of overlapping procedures on the establishing of ordinal equivalent stimuli classes.

The effects of order, suggestion and agreement on non-verbal behavior of adults

O presente estudo investigou os efeitos de regras apresentadas na forma de ordem, de sugestão e de acordo sobre o comportamento não-verbal de adultos. Vinte e quatro universitários foram expostos a um procedimento de escolha de acordo com o modelo; a tarefa consistia em apontar para cada um dos três estímulos de comparação, em sequência. Na Fase 1 dos Experimentos I e II eram apresentadas regras na forma de ordem, de sugestão ou de acordo. No Experimento I, a ordem, a sugestão e o acordo descreviam apenas uma das duas sequências de respostas que produziam pontos (trocáveis por dinheiro). No Experimento II, estas regras descreviam as duas sequências de respostas que produziam pontos, sendo uma, a sequência ordenada, sugerida ou acordada e a outra, a sequência alternativa. Na Fase II, dos dois experimentos, havia mudança não sinalizada nas contingências de reforçamento. Os resultados mostraram que a ordem, a sugestão e o acordo estabeleceram comportamentos novos. Adicionalmente, mostraram que os comportamentos estabelecidos pela ordem e pelo acordo são mais prováveis de serem mantidos após a mudança nas contingências, quando comparados com os comportamentos estabelecidos pela sugestão. Discute-se que a manutenção do seguir regras depende, em parte, das propriedades formais das regras.

The present study investigated the effects of rules presented in the form of order, suggestion and agreement on non-verbal behavior of adults. Twenty four undergraduate were exposed to a matching-to-sample procedure; the task consisted in pointing to each on of the comparison stimuli in a given sequence. In Phase 1 of Experiments I and II, rules were presented in the form of order, suggestion and agreement. In Experiment I, the order, suggestion or agreement described only one of the two response sequences which produced points (exchangeable for money). In Experiment II, these rules described both response sequences which produced points, one of them being the ordered, suggested or agreed sequence, and the other, the alternative sequence. In Phase 2 of both experiments, there was unsignalized changes in the contingencies of reinforcement. The results showed that the order, suggestion or agreement produced novel behavior. Additionally, showed that behavior established by order or agreement are more probable of being maintained after changes in the contingencies, when compared to behavior established by suggestion. It is discussed that the maintenance of rule-following is due, in part, to the formal properties of the rules.

Effects of task and delay in solving mathematical problems in children with and without ADHD

Na análise do comportamento, situações de autocontrole/impulsividade têm sido estudadas por meio de situações de escolha com alternativas que diferem em atraso e magnitude do reforço. Oito crianças foram alocadas em um grupo "com TDAH" e seis em um grupo "sem TDAH". Posteriormente essas crianças foram submetidas a cinco sessões experimentais de resolução de contas de adição e subtração que poderiam ser realizadas conforme uma de duas tarefas. Como em outros estudos sobre os efeitos do atraso em situações de escolha com humanos, a proporção de escolha entre as tarefas não variou sistematicamente com a manipulação do atraso. Por outro lado, para o grupo "com TDAH", observaram-se maiores flutuações na preferência entre as alternativas ao longo das sessões experimentais. Os presentes resultados indicam os cuidados necessários para se afirmar que o TDAH envolve autocontrole quando se utiliza escolhas com atraso, além de discutir os problemas em se utilizar este modelo.

Attention deficit Hiperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been related to self-control. In the present study, eight children were allocated to an "ADHD" group, while other six children were allocated to a "non ADHD" group. They were then submitted to fi ve experimental sessions in which they had to solve math problems, according to one of two tasks. As in other studies with humans about effects of delay on choice, relative choice did not vary systematically with delay. Moreover, for the "ADHD" group, there were more fluctuations in preference between alternatives. The present results suggest caution in declaring that ADHD involves selfcontrol when delayed choice is used and open a discussion about the problems involved in using this model.

Promoting social interactions between peers and autistic child in an environment of inclusion

O objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar a possibilidade de aumentar a freqüência de interações sociais entre uma criança autista e seus colegas sem problemas de desenvolvimento, através da utilização de um procedimento de modelação ao vivo. Os participantes foram um menino (H), com idade de 5 anos, diagnosticado com ASD desde os 3 anos e três colegas da mesma classe (duas meninas e um menino), com idades entre 4 e 5 anos, sem diagnóstico de necessidade especial. A intervenção ocorreu na quinta sessão de observação e consistiu na apresentação de um modelo de interação entre o experimentador (E) e H. Isto ocorreu na presença de todos os colegas durante as duas atividades (atividade que envolve brinquedos e apresentação de tarefas aos colegas). Os resultados evidenciaram que após a observação da interação entre E e H, os três colegas aumentaram a taxa de iniciações sociais dirigidas a H e este aumentou a taxa de respostas a essas iniciações em relação à Linha de Base. A taxa de interações entre os colegas e H continuou a crescer até atingir uma estabilidade em torno de 3 iniciações/minuto, mantendo-se nesse nível até o término do procedimento de observação na décima segunda sessão.

The aim of this study was to determine if this procedure would increase the frequency of social interactions between autistic child and their peers without developmental problems, by using a modeling procedure live. Participants were a boy (H), aged 5 years old, diagnosed with ASD from the 3-year and three colleagues from the same class (two girls and one boy), aged 4 and 5 years, no diagnosis of special need. The intervention occurred at the fi fth session of observation and was the presentation of a model of interaction between the experimenter (E) and H. This occurred in the presence of all his colleagues during two activities (activity involving toys and presentation of tasks to colleagues). The results showed that after watching the interaction between E and H, three colleagues increased the rate of social initiations directed at H and this increased the rate of responses to these initiations compared to Baseline. The rate of interactions with colleagues and H continued to grow, reaching a stabilized around 3 initiations / minute and remained at that level until the end of the procedure for observation at the twelfth session.

The notion of didactic discourse in the psychological analysis of educational processes

Se examina el concepto de discurso didáctico propuesto originalmente por Gilbert Ryle, en relación a su uso en el análisis psicológico de los procesos educativos. Primeramente se presenta este concepto tal y como fue descrito por Ryle en su obra El Concepto de Mente, para después analizar algunas interpretaciones que se han dado a esta noción como término técnico para analizar la educación desde la psicología. Se discute sobre algunas interrogantes que surgen de la revisión de las interpretaciones que de cierta manera se desvían del concepto original de Ryle. Se concluye principalmente que es necesario conservar el sentido original del término discurso didáctico por razones metodológicas, para realizar análisis empírico donde fi gure como factor educativo independiente en el desarrollo de habilidades y competencias, distinguiéndolo de las demostraciones y los ejemplos.

The concept of didactic discourse, as originally proposed by Gilbert Ryle, is examined in relation to its use in the psychological analysis of educational processes. The concept is presented just as it was described in Ryle's book The Concept of Mind in order to examine some interpretations of this notion as a technical term for a psychological analysis of education. A few questions arising from the review of these interpretations that somehow deviate from Ryle's original concept are discussed. The main conclusion argues that it is necessary to maintain the original meaning of the term didactic discourse for methodological reasons, so as to empirically determine its role as an independent educational factor in the development of abilities and competencies, different from demonstrations and exemplifications.