Acta Comportamentalia

Elección en palomas: Un análisis a través del dilema del prisionero

Para analizar el efecto de diferentes estrategias, simuladas por una computadora, en la adquisición de respuestas cooperativas; se entrenó a siete palomas a jugar el dilema del prisionero reiterado en contra de un oponente, simulado por una computadora, que empleaba una de tres posibles estrategias: (1) seleccionar la misma estrategia que eligió la paloma en el ensayo previo (Tic-for-Tat, TFT), (2) cooperar o traicionar aleatoriamente en cada ensayo (Random, RND) y (3) cooperar cuando la paloma traicionaba o traicionar cuando la paloma cooperaba (estrategia individualizada, I). En cada ensayo las palomas recibieron acceso diferencial al alimento después de picar la tecla asociada a la estrategia de cooperar o traicionar, por tanto, el tiempo de acceso al alimento dependía de la estrategia asignada a la computadora. Durante el experimento se entrenó a los sujetos en las tres posibles condiciones (TFT, RND o I) durante 30 sesiones de manera contrabalanceada. Los resultados muestran un mayor porcentaje de respuestas cooperativas en los sujetos que enfrentaron a un oponente que empleaba la estrategia TFT. Adicionalmente, se observó que el porcentaje de respuestas cooperativas en la condición TFT disminuyó cuando esta condición era antecedida por las condiciones RND e I. Los resultados se discuten en términos de otros estudios sobre cooperación.

To analyze the effect of different strategies, simulated by a computer, on acquisition of cooperative responses; seven pigeons played the iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma against a simulated opponent pre-programmed to play one of three strategies: (1) doing whatever the pigeon did on the previous trial (Tic-for-Tat, TFT), (2) cooperate or defect randomly on each trial (Random, RND), and (3) cooperate when the pigeon defect and defect when it cooperate (Individualist strategy, I). Each pigeon received differential amounts of access to food following choices of either cooperation key or defection key on each trial, thus it was contingent with the computer´s adopted strategy. Pigeons played against the three strategies (TFT, RND and I) for 30 sessions each, the order of strategies were counterbalanced among subjects. The results showed a higher percentage of cooperation responses when subjects played against TFT strategy. Additionally, the results showed that cooperative responses in TFT condition decreased after pre-exposing subjects to RND or I conditions. The results are discussed in terms of cooperation studies.

Control discriminativo de la conducta autocontrolada definida como "abstenerse" de consumir una recompensa en palomas

Se expuso a seis palomas, privadas de comida a un ciclo de tiempo repetitivo (ciclo T) constante en 24 s que terminaba con la iluminación de una tecla de respuesta en blanco o rojo durante 4 s y la presentación posterior del dispensador de comida. Los sujetos podían comer del dispensador solo cuando su presentación era precedida por la tecla iluminada de blanco; cuando los sujetos se aproximaban al dispensador precedido por la tecla en rojo, el dispensador se retiraba y se presentaba un apagón de luces de una duración promedio de 5 s. En el Experimento 1 se alternó o se presentó al azar la tecla iluminada de blanco o de rojo, en condiciones sucesivas. En el Experimento 2 se varió en condiciones sucesivas la duración del dispensador de comida que seguía a la tecla iluminada de rojo. Las duraciones fueron 4 s, 1 s, 2 s, 1 s, 4 s. Globalmente, se encontró que la presentación al azar del color de la tecla facilitó la adquisición de la conducta autocontrolada de "abstenerse" de consumir la comida subsecuente. Variar la duración del reforzador precedido por la tecla en rojo facilitó el moldeamiento de la conducta de "abstenerse" de consumir la recompensa. Se concluyó que es viable someter a control discriminativo la conducta autocontrolada de "abstenerse" de consumir una recompensa.

Six food-deprived pigeons were exposed to a repetitive time cycle constant in 24 s which ended with the illumination of a response key in white or red for 4 s and the subsequent food presentation. The subjects could eat from the food-dispenser only when its presentation was preceded by the key illuminated in white. When the subjects approximated to the dispenser preceded by the key illuminated in red, it was removed and a 5-s blackout was presented. In Experiment 1 the illumination of the response key in white or red was presented alternately or randomly, in successive conditions. In Experiment 2 the duration of the dispenser presented after the red key was varied in successive conditions as follows: 4 s, 1 s, 2 s, 1 s, 4 s. In general, it was found that the random presentation of the key color facilitated the acquisition of self-controlled behavior of "refraining" from eating the subsequent food reinforcer. To vary the duration of the reinforcer preceded by the key illuminated in red facilitated the shaping of the behavior of "refraining" from eating the food reinforcer. It was concluded that it is viable to establish the discriminative control of self-controlled behavior of "refraining" from eating a food reinforcer.

Effects of justifications reported in rules on rule following

Para investigar os efeitos de justificativas sobre o seguimento de regras, dezoito universitários foram expostos a um procedimento de escolha segundo o modelo. A tarefa era apontar para cada um dos três estímulos de comparação em sequência. Cada estímulo de comparação apresentava apenas uma dimensão - cor (C), espessura (E) ou forma (F) - em comum com o estímulo modelo e diferia nas demais. A sequência simples (EFC) e a complexa (EFCFCE) eram corretas e as únicas a produzirem pontos em esquema de reforço contínuo. No Experimento 1, os 12 participantes foram distribuídos em quatro condições, com cinco fases cada. Na Fase 1, linha de base, nenhuma sequência era reforçada ou instruída. Cada uma das demais fases, de 20 tentativas, era iniciada com a apresentação da regra com ou da regra sem justificativa adicional para a emissão da sequência complexa. As condições diferiam apenas quanto à ordem em que as regras eram apresentadas para todos os participantes nas Fases 2, 3, 4 e 5. O Experimento 2 replicou o Experimento 1 para avaliar os efeitos de justificativas na ausência de pontos imediatos. Na Fase 1, o desempenho foi variável. Nas fases sem justificativa adicional, predominantemente foi apresentada a sequência simples. E nas fases com justificativa adicional a sequência predominantemente apresentada foi a complexa. Os resultados apoiam a proposição de que regras podem alterar a probabilidade de o comportamento por ela especificado vir a ocorrer no futuro, e tem implicações para o papel do controle por regras na explicação do comportamento.

This study investigated the effects of justifications present in rules on rule following. Eighteen college students were exposed to a matching to sample procedure with the task of pointing each comparison stimulus in sequence. Each comparison stimulus had only one property in common with the sample -color (C), thickness (E) or form (F). The simple (EFC) and the complex sequences (EFCFCE) were the correct and the only these yield points exchangeable for money, in a continuous reinforcement schedule. In Experiment 1 three participants were allocated to each of four conditions, composed of five phases. Phase 1, baseline, begun with the presentation of the minimum instruction (sequence was not specified) and ended after 10 trials. Each of the following phases begun with the presentation of a rule without justification, or with the presentation of one of three rules with justification, ending after 20 trials. Every rule specified both correct senquences. The rules with or without additional justification mentioned that correct sequences would yield points. Each rule with additional justification had also a justification for the participante to emit the complex sequence, specified that the participant would earn double points, or would help others, or that would both, win double points and help others. All participants were exposed to rules with and without additional justification. The conditions differed only in respect to the order of presentatian of the two rules. The Experiment 2 tried a systematic replication of Experiment 1 with six new participants, aiming to assess the effects of justifications on maintenance of choosing the complex sequence in the absence of points during the phases. It was shown that: 1) in the absence of a rule specifying the sequences to be emitted, (as was the case in Phase 1), the participants tended to present a variable performance with none presenting the complex sequence; 2) in phases with the rule presenting the same justification (earning points) both for emission of simple and complex sequences (phases with rule without additional justification) the participants tended to emit the simple sequence; and, 3) in phases with rule with additional justification (earn double points, help others or both) for the emission of the complex sequence the participants tended to present the complex sequence. The results support the proposition that rules may change the probability of the specified behavior to occur in the future, and have implications for the role of the control by rules in the account of behavior.

Efecto del intercambio de recursos y fuerza de trabajo en la elección de contingencias compartidas

Se planeó un experimento para evaluar el efecto del intercambio de recursos y fuerza de trabajo en la elección entre contingencias no compartidas o contingencias compartidas de altruismo parcial con o sin ganancias diferenciales. Ocho díadas de estudiantes universitarios resolvieron rompecabezas en dos computadoras interconectadas en red (cuatro lo hicieron en el mismo cubículo y cuatro en cubículos distintos a fin de restringir la posibilidad de interacción verbal). En las condiciones experimentales, cada participante de la díada pudo observar la ejecución de su compañero y colocar sus piezas tanto en su rompecabezas como en el de su compañero. Después de las sesiones de línea base, las díadas se expusieron alternadamente a condiciones de consecuencias no diferenciales o diferenciales en una situación de altruismo parcial. En las fases de consecuencias no diferenciales los participantes obtuvieron un disco musical y en las de consecuencias diferenciales obtuvieron de cero a dos discos dependiendo del monto de puntos alcanzado. Los resultados sugieren que el intercambio de recursos y fuerza de trabajo así como el establecimiento de acuerdos entre los participantes favorecen la elección de contingencias compartidas de altruismo parcial, mientras que el carácter diferencial o no diferencial de las consecuencias no parece jugar un papel determinante. Se discuten los resultados en términos de las relaciones de intercambio involucradas y del papel de los factores situacionales y lingüísticos.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of resources and labor power exchange on the choice between non-shared or shared contingencies of partial altruism with or without differential earnings. Eight dyads of college students solved puzzles in two computers connected in a network (four did it in the same cubicle and four in different cubicles in order to restrict the chance of verbal interaction between participants). Under the experimental conditions, each participant was able to observe his/her peer's performance and place his/her pieces in the own puzzle or in their peer's puzzle. After the base line sessions, dyads were alternately exposed to conditions of non-differential or differential consequences on a partial altruism situation. Within the phases of non-differential consequences the participants obtained a musical disc disregarding the amount of earned points and within differential consequences phases they obtained zero, one or two disks depending on how many points they earned. Results suggest that resources and labor power exchange and verbal agreements between participants promote the choice for shared contingencies choice. Differential or non-differential exchange of points did not seem to have a determinant role. The results are discussed in terms of the involved exchange relations and the role of situational and linguistic factors.

Stimulus equivalence: Effects of a board game about food choices

Esta pesquisa investigou o efeito do uso de um jogo de tabuleiro na formação de classe de equivalência de estímulos e na avaliação e escolhas alimentares, realizadas por meio de figuras por crianças que fazem seleção restritiva alimentar. Participaram da pesquisa duas crianças com idades de sete e oito anos. A pesquisa teve seis etapas: investigação sobre os hábitos alimentares, pré-teste de avaliação e pré-teste das escolhas alimentares, intervenção/jogo, ensino do procedimento MTS, teste das propriedades emergentes e verificação/pós-teste. Inicialmente os participantes assinalaram em uma folha suas escolhas e preferências por alimentos (pré-teste). Na etapa de intervenção, foram conduzidas oito sessões com o jogo, o qual visou ensinar as relações AB e AC. Cada classe de estímulos era composta por três figuras: classe A - cestas de supermercado; B - grupos alimentares e a C - mãos indicando positivo. Posteriormente, testaram-se as relações AA, BB, CC, BA, CA, CB e BC, seguido pelo pós-teste. Houve formação de classes equivalentes. Para um dos participantes houve mudanças na avaliação e escolhas alimentares e, segundo os responsáveis, ambos os participantes consumiram alimentos que não consumiam antes da intervenção. Discutem-se as variáveis presentes no jogo que podem ter contribuído para que os participantes consumissem novos alimentos.

This research has investigated the effect of a board game use on the formation of equivalence classes of stimuli and food choices evaluation through pictures, by children under dietary restrictions. Two children aged seven and eight were the participants in this research. The protocol consisted of six phases: research on eating habits, assessment and food choices pre-tests, intervention / game, MTS learning, testing of the emergent properties / post-test. Initially, participants indicated on a sheet of paper choices and preferences for foods (pre-test). During intervention, eight game sessions were conducted, which aimed at teaching the relations AB and AC. Each class of stimuli consisted of three images: A-supermarket baskets, B - food groups and C - hands indicating positive. Subsequently, the relations AA, BB, CC, BA, CA, CB and BC (Test of emerging properties) were tested, followed by the post-test. There was formation of equivalence classes. For one of the participants, changes in food choice evaluation have been reported and, according to their legal guardians, both participants consumed food items they would not eat before the intervention. We discuss the variables presented in the game that may have contributed to participants' consumption of new food items.

Social sensitivity: A critical review

La sensibilité sociale se définit comme l'ajustement d'un organisme aux contingences de renforcement social de son environnement (Forget et Rivard, 2010). Ce concept repose sur la loi généralisée de l'appariement (Baum. 1974) et sur l'hypothèse selon laquelle l'attention sociale présente généralement une fonction de renforcement (Sajwaj & Dillon, 1977). La présente recension des écrits empiriques expose les résultats des trente dernières années de recherche sur cette notion de sensibilité. Parmi 83 sujets provenant de 19 études, la fréquence relative des comportements étudiés correspond majoritairement bien aux prédictions de la loi généralisée de l'appariement. Les résultats suggèrent un continuum de sensibilité d'une personne à l'autre, ou d'un type de personnes à l'autre. Ainsi, le comportement des populations tout-venant correspond davantage aux prédictions du modèle tandis que les personnes ayant un syndrome d'Asperger sembleraient insensibles aux renforçateurs sociaux. Par ailleurs, la sensibilité sociale des personnes ayant un trouble du spectre de l'autisme présente une plus grande variabilité, à mi-chemin entre ces deux premiers groupes. Toutefois, 78 % des études n'impliquent aucun contrôle expérimental du taux de renforcement prodigué par l'adulte. Si la loi généralisée de l'appariement semble avoir une valeur heuristique pour déterminer le degré de sensibilité d'une personne à son environnement social, l'établissement de la validité empirique et expérimentale du concept reste à démontrer.

Social sensitivity is defined by the adjustment of an organism to the contingencies of social reinforcement (Forget & Rivard, 2010) and relies on the generalized matching law (Baum, 1974) and the operant function of social attention (Sajwaj & Dillon, 1977) such as verbal and non-verbal approvals, staring, and proximity (Forget & Otis, 1984). The current article assesses the actual state of knowledge on social sensitivity that has been carried over the last 30 years of research. Studies were identified through a search in PsycInfo regardless of the year of publication. The keywords were matching law, social sensitivity, social attention. The reference section of each article was further examined to identify additional studies on social sensitivity. Inclusion criteria were the use of single-subject designs with social reinforcers and single-subject statistical analyses relying on the generalized matching law. Other studies were rejected because of statistical issues arising from between-subject analyses (Caron, 2013). The current review identified 15 published articles and 4 theses. Results reveal that social sensitivity has been mostly studied on children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and within classroom. Most studies showed that the generalized matching law describes well participants' response allocation according to social reinforcers. Among the 83 identified participants, 57 % conformed to matching law predictions. Results suggest a continuum of social sensitivity. For instance, typical participants' response allocations were generally closer to matching law predictions whereas participants with Asperger syndrome appeared to be insensitive to social reinforcers. Response allocations of the latter population showed low explained variances and a single participant showed a high sensitivity parameter. Participants with Austism Spectrum Disorders ranged between these two groups and showed higher bias value. This result agrees with the idea that this population presents and prefers stereotypic behavior. However, the review shows that 78 % of the identified studies did not use experimental designs. Most studies relied on descriptive observations, that is unconstrained reinforcers ratios, that may lead to relevant issues (St. Peter al., 2005), incorrect outcomes (Thompson & Iwata, 2007) and does not allow definitive conclusions (Bijou, Peterson & Ault, 1968). Considering only experimental designs, a single study showed results in favor of the generalized matching law, another one shows mixed results and the last two cast doubt on the capacity of the generalized matching law to describe social interaction. These ambiguous conclusions clearly point out that more experimental studies are needed. Despite that the flight from natural fields to the laboratory may represent a challenge, it is the next necessary step forward a robust and relevant theory of social sensitivity

The treatment of stuttering and the therapist-client relationship: A case study

Este artigo descreve o comportamento de gaguejar de um adulto de 25 anos no contexto de alguns aspectos de sua história de aprendizagem e de situações interpessoais que enfrentava em seu cotidiano. Tanto as dificuldades de fala no cotidiano, quanto o próprio processo do tratamento foram analisados em relação às maneiras como o cliente lidava com os aspectos aversivos inseridos nessas situações. Durante o tratamento, foram estabelecidos alguns comportamentos que permitiam ao cliente responder melhor aos desafios do contato interpessoal. A terapia trabalhou a dificuldade do cliente de se posicionar frente aos problemas inerentes nas situações de fala. Essas intervenções visaram, não somente os problemas do cliente no seu dia-a-dia a partir de seu relato, mas também, o comportamento espontâneo do cliente no relacionamento pessoal com o terapeuta a partir de aspectos observados diretamente em sessão. O artigo discute que o entrelaçamento do foco sobre comportamentos relatados pelo cliente com o foco sobre o relacionamento terapêutico levou à diminuição da frequência da resposta de gaguejar, à generalização para as situações de falar e de condições interpessoais que ele relatava como difíceis, enquanto que, a possibilidade de gaguejar perdeu o seu efeito aversivo e ameaçador para ele.

The present article describes a 25-year-old adult's stuttering in the context of specific aspects of his learning history and of interpersonal situations with which he deals in his daily life. Both the client's daily life speech problems and the treatment process itself were analyzed in relation to the client's ways of coping with aversive aspects that are part of those situations. Treatment promoted specific behaviors that put the client in a better position for dealing with the challenges of interpersonal contact. Treatment addressed the client's difficulties to confront the problems that are inherent in speech situations. These interventions targeted not only the client's reported daily life problems, but also his spontaneous behavior in the personal relationship with the therapist. The article discusses how the interweaving of therapeutic techniques focused on reported daily life behavior and on the relationship in the sessions leads to a reduction in the frequency of stuttering related problems, to better coping with conversational situations and with the interpersonal conditions he experienced as difficult, while the expectancy to stutter lost its aversive menacing meaning for him.

Conditioned reinforcing function: Discriminative function interactions

Reforço condicionado, tema de estudos há mais de 60 anos, é um estímulo que tem sua função reforçadora estabelecida a partir da relação de contingência com outro reforçador. No entanto, apesar da simplicidade da definição, diferentes e refinadas metodologias são utilizadas para investigar os efeitos de reforçadores condicionados, o que, consequentemente, ocasiona em diferentes medidas. Alguns estudos têm investigado as relações entre as funções reforçadora e discriminativa, tais como estudos que utilizaram o procedimento de observação. O objetivo do presente trabalho é apresentar alguns estudos tradicionais sobre o tema a fim de discutir a respeito das relações entre as funções reforçadora e discriminativa. Questiona-se a respeito da participação do estímulo reforçador em uma contingência S-S e também em uma contingência tríplice enquanto condição necessária ou suficiente para se estabelecer um reforçador condicionado. Os resultados dos estudos apontam para a relevância da função discriminativa, assim como de outras variáveis, como a contingência S-S, para o estabelecimento da função reforçadora, porém indicam que a função discriminativa não é condição necessária para o estabelecimento da função reforçadora. Estas discussões profícuas direcionam para a importância da realização de pesquisas adicionais sobre o assunto com o objetivo de integrar e consolidar os resultados já existentes na literatura.

Conditioned reinforcement has been studied for more than 60 years and is defined as the stimulus which became a reinforcer in function of its relation with another reinforcer. In spite of this simple definition, different and sophisticated procedures have been used to investigate the phenomenon, which consequently resulted in the use of different measures. Some studies have investigated the relationship between the discriminative and reinforcing functions such as studies that used the observation procedure. The objective of this paper is to present some traditional studies to discuss the relationship between the reinforcing and discriminative functions. The question raised is related to the stimulus functioning in a S-S contingency besides in a three terms contingency as a necessary or sufficient condition to establish a conditioned reinforcer. To achieve this goal, studies that aim to explicitly investigate the relations between discriminative and reinforcing functions and studies that did not have this goal but also evoke the question are discussed. Among the latter studies, are located the response suppression studies, that allowed to discuss the contiguity and contingency relations between stimulus, and the observation procedure studies, that allowed to discuss the relationship between the signaling, discriminative and reinforcing functions. The results of studies stress the relevance of the discriminating function, as well as other variables, like S-S contingency, to establish the reinforcing function, but indicate that the first one is not necessary for the establishment of the conditioned reinforcer. These fruitful discussions highlight the relevance of carrying out further research on the subject in order to integrate and consolidate existing findings in the literature.