Acta Comportamentalia

Operant Behavioral Variability and the Lag-N Schedule of Reinforcement

Pesquisadores afirmam que a variabilidade constitui uma dimensão operante do comportamento. O estudo presente analisou a consistência dessa posição, adotando um conceito de operante que distingue classes descritivas e classes funcionais. O reforçamento diferencial modela operantes modificando a correlação entre as duas classes. A variação positiva da correlação representa o processo de diferenciação. As classes descritivas são definidas sobre parâmetros do comportamento. Definido um parâmetro, pode-se definir um parâmetro secundário, o tempo de recorrência (TR), que mede recência. Os esquemas Lag-N defi nem classes sobre o parâmetro TR. Muitos estudos sobre variabilidade operante empregaram esquemas Lag-N e reforçaram diferencialmente a emissão de diferentes sequências de respostas. Esses estudos adotaram como principal variável dependente um índice (U), que mede previsibilidade de eventos. Eram registradas as frequências em que era emitida cada uma das diferentes sequências. O índice U refletia a uniformidade da distribuição dessas frequências. Como o esquema Lag-N não define sua classe descritiva sobre U, não se pode medir a variação da correlação sobre esse índice. A variação de U não representa, portanto, o processo de diferenciação que os esquemas Lag-N promovem. Essa circunstância traz dificuldades à tese de que a variabilidade é uma dimensão operante do comportamento.

There are two groups of studies that investigated variability of responding. One group includes the studies that investigated the behavioral variability without reinforcing it differentially. Another group of studies investigated the behavioral variability generated by differential reinforcement. According to some researchers, studies of later group produced data showing that variability is an operant dimension of behavior. So there would be an operant variability. The present study analyses the pertinence of such point of view. Controlling by consequences is the basic feature of operant behavior. Some authors that examined the concept of operant distinguished two classes of behavior: the class of behavior that produces consequences (descriptive class) and the class of behavior that is affected by consequences produced (functional class). The present work adopted this perspective. The relationship between both classes, measured by the standard correlation coeffi cient (r), defi nes operant behavior. The differential reinforcement usually changes the correlation coeffi cient between classes over the time. Positive variation of r represents the differentiation process. Descriptive classes are defi ned upon some parameter of behavior (like force, duration, location and so on). Such parameters were called primary parameters. It is possible defi ne, upon such primary parameter, a secondary parameter, the recurrence time parameter (RT), that refl ects the recency of a certain value of the primary parameter. Lag-N schedule defi nes descriptive classes upon the secondary parameter RT. Many studies of operant behavioral variability employed Lag-N schedules and reinforced differentially response sequences. Responses on two manipulanda (left manipulandum and right manipulandum) composed sequences of R and L components. Such studies took behavioral variability as synonym of unpredicability and chose as main dependent variable the U measure, a value that refl ects predicability of events. From this point of view, variable responding is responding with low predicability level. The studies show that Lag- N schedule increases the U values (when the values are compared with the baseline U values). However, because Lag-N schedule does not defi ne descriptive class upon the U values, it is not possible measure the variation of correlation upon U. Moreover, the U represents a property of a population of events (responses or sequences). It does not refl ect the property of an unique response or sequence. Defi ning a descriptive class upon the U measure might be conceptually problematic. The traditional employment of U takes into account frequencies at which different sequences are emitted. The present work argues that this procedure represents an arbitrary choice. The determination of U can take into account other universes of events and distribution of other variables. The same behavioral pattern can be said to be highly variable or lowly variable depending on the universe regarded for the calculation of U. The present study concludes that Lag-N schedule produces effects on behavior that do not concern the RT parameter. The variation of U is among these effects. Particularly, the variation of U does not represent the differentiation process that Lag-N schedule generates. This fact debilitates the point of view that variability is an operant dimension of behavior.

Description accuracy, feedback and knowledge about postcontact description purpose on performance, elaboration and description transmission

En el presente trabajo se presentan dos estudios que tuvieron como objetivo explorar los efectos de la explicitud de la finalidad de la descripción, la precisión de las descripciones precontacto y la frecuencia de retroalimentación sobre el tipo de descripciones elaboradas, la ejecución instrumental y la transmisión de descripciones en tareas de igualación de la muestra. En el Experimento 1 participaron 30 estudiantes universitarios que fueron asignados aleatoriamente a uno de seis grupos experimentales para realizar una tarea de discriminación condicional (igualación a la muestra de primer orden). Los resultados mostraron que la precisión de las descripciones precontacto y la frecuencia de la retroalimentación tienen efectos diferenciales en la ejecución instrumental del sujeto así como la falta de correspondencia entre los niveles de dicha ejecución y el tipo de descripción realizada. En el Experimento 2 se investigó el uso de descripciones realizadas por diferentes sujetos del primer experimento como descripciones precontacto para los sujetos de los grupos correspondientes de este estudio. En general se observan ejecuciones cercanas al nivel de azar (i.e. 12 aciertos), aunque los participantes del grupo con retroalimentación continua y acoplado con un sujeto que recibió descripciones precontacto específicas, obtuvieron altas ejecuciones en la segunda fase del experimento. Se discute en términos de las variables que pueden afectar tanto la adquisición de una función instruccional para la descripción precontacto como aquellas que afectan la elaboración de las descripciones poscontacto y la adquisición de una función de regla.

Two experiments assessed the effects of specifying the post-contact description purpose, pre-contact description specificity, and feedback frequency on instrumental performance, post-contact elaboration and description’s transmission. In Experiment 1, 30 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of six experimental groups in order to perform a matching-to-sample task. Results showed that pre-contact specificity and feedback frequency had differential effects both on performance and on the specificity and pertinence of the elaborated post-contact descriptions, and in the correspondence between performance and descriptions. Experiment 2 investigated the use of descriptions elaborated by participants in a previous experiment when used as instructions for 30 new undergraduate students. Performance levels varied around 12 correct responses, although the group with continuous feedback, yoked with a participant that received specific pre-contact descriptions, showed the best performance in the second phase. Results are discussed in terms of how can be affected both the acquisition of instructional functions by a pre-contact description and the post-contact descriptions, and the acquisition of a rule function.

Effects of an educative board game on the acquisition of reading and writing

O trabalho investigou se o uso de um jogo de tabuleiro que possibilita o ensino das relações entre palavra impressa, conjunto de sílabas, figura, escrita manuscrita e palavra falada produz a leitura e escrita das palavras ensinadas (palavras de ensino) e de novas palavras formadas a partir da recombinação das sílabas destas palavras (palavras de generalização). Participaram nove crianças com idade entre 5 e 6 anos. O trabalho foi realizado em cinco etapas (Pré-Teste, Intervenção, Sonda, Pós-Teste e Follow-up). No Pré-Teste testaram-se as relações entre palavra impressa e palavra falada pela criança, entre palavra falada e conjunto de sílabas, entre palavra falada e escrita manuscrita e entre figura e palavra impressa. Em seguida realizaram-se quinze sessões com o jogo de tabuleiro. Finalmente, as mesmas relações testadas no Pré-Teste foram novamente avaliadas (Sonda e Pós-Teste). Quanto às palavras de ensino, os resultados mostraram que houve aumento no número de palavras corretamente lidas, de sílabas das palavras corretamente selecionadas, de emparelhamentos corretos entre palavras e figura e de sílabas corretamente escritas. Quanto às palavras de generalização, observou-se um aumento no número de sílabas corretamente selecionadas.

This work investigates whether the use of a board game, which makes possible to teach the relationships between the printed word, a group of syllables, pictures, handwritten and spoken word, leads to the reading and writing of taught words (teaching words) and new words formed by the recombination of syllables from these words (generalization words). Nine children aged 5 and 6 participated in the study. The work was realized in 5 stages (Pre-test, Intervention, Investigation, Post -test, and Follow-up). During the Pre-test, the relationships between the printed word and the word spoken by the child, between the spoken word and the group of syllables, the spoken word and the handwritten word and between the written word and the picture were tested. Next, 15 board game sessions were conducted. Finally, these same relationships were once again evaluated (Investigation and Final Post test). In regards to teaching words, results showed an increase in the number of words read correctly, syllables selected correctly, picture and words matched correctly and syllables written correctly. As for the generalization words, there was an increase in number of syllables selected correctly.

Tolman and Pavlovian conditioning

Dans un article de 1933 intitulé Sign-gestalt or conditioned reflex ? Tolman défend l’idée que l’apprentissage spatial est hors de la portée explicative du conditionnement pavlovien. En effet, il soutient que les résultats d’une expérience qu’il a réalisé avec Honzik en 1930 sont inabordables en termes pavloviens, malgré la compatibilité d’une telle explication avec les résultats d’une expérience qu’il a mené en 1932. Nous pensons que Tolman a trop hâtivement conclu que l’apprentissage spatial en labyrinthe est hors de la portée explicative du conditionnement pavlovien. L’objectif est de montrer que les résultats de Tolman sont envisageables avec le conditionnement pavlovien de la réponse d’approche des stimulus associés au stimulus inconditionné par le biais : (1) de l’occasion setting pour l’expérience de Tolman (1932) et (2) du préconditionnement sensoriel pour l’expérience de Tolman et Honzik (1930).

Tolman seems convinced that maze learning is outside the scope of pavlovian conditioning. In a paper addressed to this idea, Tolman (1933) surprisingly acknowledges that one observation of maze learning he made (Tolman, 1932) is a form of conditioning but emphasizes more on a further observation (Tolman & Honzik, 1930) which he regards as problematic for a conditioning account. We do not think that Tolman had any good evidence that maze learning is outside the scope of pavlovian conditioning. The goal of this article is to show that Tolman’s results appeal to the pavlovian conditioning of an approach response to stimuli associated with an unconditioned stimulus through: (1) occasion setting for Tolman’s (1932) results and (2) sensory preconditioning for Tolman and Honzik’s (1930) results.

The extensions of tact according the Skinnerian conception of stimulus property

Em Verbal Behavior, B. F. Skinner apresenta uma interpretação a respeito das extensões do operante verbal tacto. Incluída em sua interpretação está uma categorização das extensões do tacto: genérica, metafórica, metonímica, solecista, nomeação e adivinhação. No entanto, o modo como tais categorias derivam-se de classes verbais estabelecidas não está devidamente esclarecido em sua obra. Também não estão definidas as regras que são consideradas pelo autor ao realizar a classificação dos tipos de extensões. Procurando explicitar, com base estritamente na interpretação skinneriana, o (1) mecanismo de extensões do tacto, e a (2) lógica envolvida na sua categorização, buscou-se, no Verbal Behavior e em textos prévios do autor, informações que permitissem elucidar esses importantes aspectos de sua interpretação. Destacou-se, no curso da investigação, a importância da noção de propriedade de estímulo na interpretação skinneriana das extensões do tacto como uma noção fundamental na explicitação do mecanismo comportamental envolvido nas extensões, ou mesmo subsidiando a categorização dos diferentes tipos apresentados pelo autor. A partir disso, enumerou-se, em ordem decrescente de probabilidade de emissão, as extensões do tacto: extensão genérica, extensão metafórica, extensão metonímica, solecismo e adivinhação.

In Verbal Behavior, B. F. Skinner presents an interpretation about tact extensions. Included in his interpretation there is a categorization of extensions of tact: generic, metaphorical, metonymical, solecistic, nomination and guessing. However, how such categories are derived from verbal classes set is not properly clarifi ed in his work. There are also no set rules that are considered by the author to perform the classification of types of extensions. Trying to explain, based strictly on Skinner’s interpretation, (1) the extension mechanism of tact and (2) the logic involved in his categorization, we investigated, in Verbal Behavior and previous texts of the same author, information which would clarify these important aspects of his interpretation. It was emphasized in the course of present text, the importance of the concept of stimulus property in the skinnerian interpretation of extensions because it is a fundamental concept in description of behavioral mechanism involved in extensions and, to other hand, it can be a base to various categorizations of tact extensions presented by Skinner. Therefore, tact extensions were organized, in decreasing order, in accord to probability of appearance: generic, metaphorical, metonymical, solecistic, and guessing.

Instrumentality and coherence of the concept of private events

A Análise do Comportamento distingue-se de outras modalidades de behaviorismo por seu tratamento original para a subjetividade, aí incluído o uso do conceito de eventos privados. Uma vez que a Análise do Comportamento tem sido associada ao pragmatismo, por seus critérios de validação dos conceitos e proposições científicos, este trabalho discute a cientificidade do conceito de eventos privados à luz daqueles critérios. Tomando como referência proposições de James e Rorty sobre a relação entre instrumentalidade e coerência na validação de conceitos e enunciados, o artigo discute a validade do conceito de eventos privados para abordar os problemas relacionados à subjetividade considerando-se dois problemas: a) a ausência de visão consensual sobre a coerência do conceito com o sistema explicativo analítico-comportamental; e b) as funções do conceito. Argumentamos que analistas do comportamento têm usado o conceito de eventos privados sob controle de fenômenos de complexidade variável, o que explicaria parcialmente a falta de consenso sobre a coerência do conceito com o sistema explicativo analítico-comportamental. Quando há algum consenso sobre sua coerência, falta ainda consenso sobre sua instrumentalidade. Com isso, o reconhecimento da coerência e instrumentalidade do conceito depende da emissão da resposta verbal “eventos privados” sob controle de classes específicas de eventos.

Behavior analysis distinguishes itself from other behaviorist approaches in the treatment it offers to the issue of subjectivity, which includes the use of the concept of private events. Since behavior analysis has been related to pragmatism, on the basis of the criteria used to validate scientific concepts and propositions, this paper discusses the scientific character of the concept of private events in the light of those criteria. The paper presents James’s and Rorty’s statements concerning the relation between instrumentality and coherence in the validation of concepts and propositions. Those statements are used as a reference to the analysis of the validity of the concept of private events in the treatment of problems related to subjectivity, considering on two problems: a) the lack of a consensus about the concept’s coherence with the behavior-analytic explanatory system; and b) the functions of the concept. We argue that behavior analysts have used the concept of private events under the control of phenomena of variable complexity, which might explain the lack of consensus about its coherence with the behavior-analytic explanatory system. When some sort of consensus about its coherence is reached, it lacks about its instrumentality. Thus, the recognition of coherence and instrumentality of the concept is dependent on the emission of the verbal response “private events” under the control of specific classes of events.