Acta Comportamentalia

Common variables to experimental analysis of behavior and motivation

La integración del conocimiento establecido es una tarea que demanda unir hallazgos de área consideradas diferentes entre sí. El propósito de esta investigación fue obtener evidencia comparable con hallazgos de la motivación y del análisis experimental de la conducta. Se utilizó la estrategia de conceptualizar un programa múltiple de reforzamiento de dos componentes en el que se varió la duración de ambos componentes, extinción y reforzamiento. El programa estuvo vigente las 24 horas del día y conforme a una diseño factorial cada tres ratas fueron expuestas a tres duraciones del componente de extinción, 45, 180 y 720 minutos en combinación con tres duraciones del componente de reforzamiento, 2.5, 10 y 40 minutos. Se encontró que la tasa de respuesta, la latencia durante el componente de reforzamiento y la distribución temporal de la respuesta en reforzamiento variaron conforme a las predicciones de los estudios con programas múltiples y son comparables con evidencia generada en teoría de la motivación. Esto hallazgos contribuyen con generalidad de las variables manipuladas y sugieren que la estrategia utilizada para vincular ambos enfoques es apropiada.

Integrate established knowledge is an enterprise that have need of merge discoveries from areas that in appearance are different each other. The purpose of this research was to probe that exist comparable evidence in experimental analysis of behavior and the motivation. The strategy for this demonstration consisted in conceptualize a multiple schedule of reinforcement with two components, extinction and reinforcement. This schedule was operative 24 hours a day according to a factorial design which included three durations of extinction component, 45, 180 and 720 minutes mixed with three durations of reinforcement component, 2.5, 10 and 40 minutes. It was found that response rate, latency during reinforcement and temporal distribution of response varied according to the predictions of multiple schedule of reinforcement and are comparable to the motivation findings. These facts contribute to the generality of the variables manipulated in this study and suggest that the strategy used in this research was effective.

O jato de ar quente como estímulo aversivo antecedente

O Jato de Ar Quente (JAQ) é um estímulo aversivo alternativo ao choque elétrico. Entretanto, pouco ainda se sabe sobre quais respostas são produzidas pelo seu contato com o organismo. O objetivo do presente estudo foi realizar o mapeamento de tais respostas e como elas estariam relacionadas com a supressão do responder em contextos de punição. No Experimento 1, o JAQ foi apresentado em um esquema não-contingente (VT- 3min). No Experimento 2, o JAQ foi apresentado em um esquema contingente como punição da resposta de pressionar a barra (FR-1 de punição + VI-60s de reforçamento). As sessões foram todas filmadas. Foram categorizadas as respostas observadas durante o acionamento de cada JAQ, bem como os trinta segundos antes e os trinta segundos depois da apresentação desse estímulo. As principais respostas registradas no Experimento 1 foram: abaixar, esticar, andar, farejar e varredura. No Experimento 2, por sua vez, foram: posicionar-se sobre a barra, farejar o teto, contato com o corpo, levantar e varredura. As respostas registradas, em sua maioria, principalmente no Experimento 2, eram relacionadas ao afastamento da região da barra e do comedouro, podendo ser interpretadas como concorrentes à resposta de pressionar a barra. Uma discussão da compatibilidade destes dados com a perspectiva assimétrica de explicação da punição, como a oferecida por Skinner, é apresentada.

The Hot Air Blast (HAB) is an aversive stimulus that has been used as an alternative to the electric shock. However, little is known about the responses produced by its contact with the organism. The aim of the present study was to map these responses and its relationship with suppression observed during punishment. In Experiment 1 the HAB was presented in a non-contingent schedule (VT3min). In Experiment 2 the HAB was presented in a contingent schedule as punishment of the bar press response (FR1 of punishment + VI60s reinforcement) All sessions were video recorded. Responses were categorized, those that occurred during each presentation of HAB, so were those that occurred 30 seconds before and after the aversive stimulus presentation. The main responses observed in Experiment 1 were: crouching, flat-back, walking, sniffing and visual scan. In Experiment 2 the observed responses were: placing itself on the bar, sniffing the ceiling, contact with the body, rising, and visual scan. Most of the responses observed, mainly in Experiment 2 were related to staying away from the feeder and the bar region and may be interpreted as concurrent of the bar press operant response. It is offered a discussion on how the present results are compatible to the asymmetric explanation of punishment, like the one offered by Skinner.

Can stimuli related to the absence of reward reduce impulsivity in rats?

En el presente trabajo se exploró la posibilidad de que un estímulo relacionado con la ausencia de una recompensa primaria adquiriera una función aversiva en una situación de elección. Se expuso a ratas a una condición de elección entre dos alternativas: (1) la entrega de agua después de transcurrido un intervalo de demora, y (2) la presentación de un ruido blanco seguido de un tiempo fuera. De este modo, el ruido blanco fue un predictor negativo de la entrega de agua. La aversividad adquirida por el ruido blanco fue evaluada examinando la preferencia de los sujetos por una alternativa SS (i.e., entrega de agua inmediata con una menor magnitud) en la que se añadía el ruido blanco. En el Experimento 1 se utilizó un diseño mixto; es decir, se comparó la ejecución de los sujetos después del tratamiento experimental con su ejecución previa al tratamiento, y también se comparó su ejecución con sujetos en grupos de control. Los sujetos del Grupo Experimental mostraron una menor preferencia por la alternativa SS después de la Fase de Tratamiento comparada con su propia ejecución durante la Línea Base y comparada con la ejecución de los sujetos de control. Sin embargo, dichas diferencias no fueron estadísticamente significativas. En el Experimento 2 se incrementó el tamaño de la muestra y se utilizó un diseño entre grupos. Nuevamente, los sujetos del Grupo Experimental mostraron una menor preferencia por la alternativa SS que los sujetos de control. Sin embargo, este efecto podría ser interpretado mediante una explicación distinta a que el ruido blanco haya adquirido propiedades aversivas.

The present work explored the possibility that a stimulus paired with the absence of a primary reward acquire an aversive function in a choice situation. Rats were exposed to a choice condition between two alternatives: (1) water delivery after a delay interval elapsed, and (2) presentation of a white noise followed by a time out. Thereby, the white noise was a negative predictor of water delivery. Aversivity acquired by the white noise was evaluated by looking at subject's preference for a SS alternative (i.e., immediate delivery of a small amount of water) in which the white noise was added. In Experiment 1 it was implemented a mixed design; namely, performances before and after experimental treatment were compared, and also it were compared performance of experimental subjects and that of subjects in control groups. Subjects of the Experimental Group showed a lower preference for SS alternative compared to their own performance prior to the Training Phase and compared to control subjects, but such differences did not achieve statistical significance. In Experiment 2 it was increased the sample size and implemented a between groups design. Once again, Subjects of the Experimental Group showed a smaller preference for SS alternative compared with control subjects. However, such differences could be interpreted by an explanation distinct to the one that propose that the white noise acquired aversive properties.

The generalized matching law: a Monte Carlo simulation

La loi généralisée de l'appariement (LGA) est un modèle descriptif conceptualisant le ratio des réponses en fonction du ratio des renforçateurs (Baum, 1974). Les résultats des études montrent généralement une sensibilité autour de 0,80 et des variances expliquées (r2) supérieures à 0,80 (Davison & McCarthy, 1988). Les r2 très élevés de la LGA suggèrent la présence de contraintes inhérentes à la plupart des situations opérantes. Dans un programme de renforcement concurrent à intervalle variable, par exemple, la quantité de renforçateurs ne peut surpasser la quantité de comportements émis. L'objectif de la présente étude est de simuler les résultats de la LGA lorsque cette contrainte est implantée à des échantillons pseudoaléatoires. Au total, seize conditions sont répliquées 1 500 fois, représentant 24 000 essais. Les résultats montrent que la LGA obtient en moyenne un r2 de 47 %, une sensibilité de 0,60 et un biais nul. Les résultats suggèrent que des r2 de 0,62, 0,80 et 0,97 sont qualifiables, respectivement, de petite, moyenne et forte différence comparativement à 0,47. La perspective de la présente étude est comparée aux simulations de McDowell (2004) et des pistes de recherche futures sont présentées.

The generalized matching law (GML) is a descriptive mathematical model that conceptualizes an organism's response ratios as a function of associated reinforcer ratios (Baum 1974). The matching equation has been used in several experimental and natural studies and results frequently showed explained variances (r2) over 80% and sensitivity of 0.80 (Davison & McCarthy 2010). This high level of r2 might suggest that constraints within operant conditioning procedures may inflate GML parameters. For instance, in most operant procedures, such as a concurrent variable-interval schedule of reinforcement, the amount of reinforcers obtained is always lower or equal to the amount of responses, which can be seen as an emergent property of feedback functions. The purpose of the current study is to apply the GML to pseudorandomly sampled data in which this constraint has been computed. A Monte Carlo simulation shows that the generalized matching law explained on average 47 % of the variance, with sensitivity around a value of 0.60 and bias of log c = 0.00. Results found in the current study could be used as an alternative null hypothesis for future studies in natural settings. For instance, explained variances of 0.62, 0.80, and 0.97 could be qualify, respectively, as small, medium and large differences compared to 0.47. The current study is finally compared to McDowell's (2004) simulations. McDowell computed behavioral processes, such as the selection by consequences (Skinner, 1981), within the organism whereas the current study investigates environmental and observational constraints on the regressions estimates. Current results suggest further investigations of underlying environmental constraints when studying the GML. Futures studies are necessary to assess what to expect from the GML when such constraints occur in the operant conditioning procedure.

Permutation of conventional properties in a procedure designed to assess the selector function

Se propone una tarea experimental para la evaluación de la permutación funcional de propiedades de la función selectora (Ribes, 2007). El procedimiento utilizado en este trabajo consistió en poner al participante en una situación en la que debe actuar como ayudante de un detective, identificando el rol que cumplen una serie de personajes en el contexto de una historia policiaca. El participante a lo largo de la tarea debe ir asignando propiedades de tipo convencional (ser inocente, sospechoso o culpable) en función de la información que se va presentando y de las relaciones que pueda establecer entre personajes y situaciones. El análisis trata de dar cuenta de las razones por las cuales el participante asigna o modifica la propiedad o propiedades atribuidas a los personajes. Los resultados parciales evidencian que la tarea propuesta puede constituir un escenario prometedor para el análisis de interacciones de tipo selector. Se concluye que, las mejoras que puedan implementarse al procedimiento y el análisis refinado de los datos pueden constituir un buen punto de partida para dar cuenta de la permutación de propiedades y por ende de la función selectora.

We proposed a task for evaluating the permutation of functional properties of the selector function (Ribes, 2007). The procedure used in this work was to put the participant in a situation where he must act as an assistant to a detective, identifying the role of the characters in the context of a detective story. The participant throughout the task should be assigned conventional properties (being innocent, suspect or guilty) based on the presented information and the relationships between characters and situations. The analysis focuses on the permutation trying to account the reasons why the participant assigns or modifies the property or properties attributed to the characters. We conclude that the improvements that can be implemented and the refined analysis of the data can be a good starting point to account for the permutation properties and the selector function.

O efeito de diferentes instruções sobre o comportamento em DRL e a sensibilidade comportamental

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar o efeito da exposição à contingência e a diferentes regras sobre o desempenho em DRL e sobre a sensibilidade comportamental. Foram realizados dois experimentos que se diferenciavam quanto à necessidade da resposta de consumação para a obtenção do reforço. Na Fase 1, os grupos foram caracterizados de acordo com a instrução fornecida: Grupo IM (Instrução Mínima), Grupo IC (Instrução Correspondente) e Grupo ID (Instrução Discrepante). O programa de reforço DRL 5 s estava em vigor. Na Fase 2, estava em vigor a Extinção. No Experimento 1 houve a necessidade da resposta de consumação para a obtenção do reforço. Os resultados dos participantes do Experimento 1 durante a Fase 1 demonstraram que, de 15 participantes, 13 emitiram baixas taxas de resposta; os participantes do Grupo IC e do Grupo ID emitiram taxas de repostas inicialmente altas. Os dados da Fase 2 apontam que, o comportamento dos participantes do Grupo IC apresentou menor proporção de mudança em comparação aos participantes dos demais grupos. No Experimento 2, não houve a necessidade da resposta de consumação para a obtenção do reforço. Os resultados do Experimento 2 replicam os do Experimento 1, contudo os participantes do Grupo IC, do Experimento 2, não emitiram taxas inicias altas.

Rules may facilitate the acquisition of new behaviors and at the same time decrease the likelihood of behavioral change across contingency changes. This study aimed to investigate the effect of participant exposure to different rules on DRL tasks and on behavioral sensitivity to changes in programmed contingencies.Two experiments were conducted with thirteen undergrad students each. Experiment 1 differed from 2 by a consummatory response required to obtain reinforcement. Experiments consisted of two consecutive phases lasting 20 minutes each. In Phase 1, groups were assigned according to the instruction provided to them to perform on a DRL 5s schedule: Group IM (Minimum Instruction), Group IC (Correspondent Instruction) and Group ID (Discrepant Instruction). Phase 2 was identical to Phase 1, excepted that programmed consequences were not delivered (extinction). The purpose of Phase 2 was to determine how different instructions provided in Phase 1 affected participant's behavior after contingency changes. The Experiment 1 (Phase 1) showed that two participants out of 15- P5 (Group IM) and P9 (Group IC) did not show low response rates, while participants in Group IC and ID emitted initially high response rates. Results from Phase 2 suggest that participant's behavior in Group IC showed a lower change from Phase 1 in comparison to Group IM and Group ID groups. Results obtained in Experiment 2 replicated those from Experiment 1, except that participants in Group IC (Experiment 2) emitted low response rates at the start of Phase 1. Taking together, results demonstrated that instructional control can be abandoned in situations where the programmed contingency do not allow occasional reinforcement, and a history with corresponding instruction generates a smaller proportion of change in comparison to a history with minimal instruction and discrepant instruction.

Interação terapêutica: Considerações sobre os efeitos dos comportamentos de empatia, interpretação e orientação

Este estudo discute os efeitos dos comportamentos verbais vocais do terapeuta, em específico, orientação, interpretação e empatia, sobre os comportamentos do cliente de resistência e cooperação. Examina-se diferentes sistemas de categorização de comportamentos do terapeuta e cliente e como tais sistematizações permitem o estudo da interação terapêutica na terapia analítico-comportamental. São apresentadas diferentes pesquisas sobre as categorias orientação, empatia e interpretação, bem como as divergências e convergências de conclusões com relação aos efeitos positivos e negativos sobre os resultados da terapia. Constata-se que resultados discordantes sejam produzidos a partir de diferenças quanto aos procedimentos de coleta e análise dos dados utilizados. Por fim, discute-se que o impacto de categorias de comportamentos do terapeuta esteja condicionado à etapa do processo terapêutico e comportamentos precedentes do cliente e do terapeuta.

This study discuss the effects of the therapist's vocal verbal behavior, in particular, orientation, interpretation and empathy in relation to the client's behavior and therapy's results. The differences of several behavioral coding systems are analyzed, as well as their utility on the study of the therapeutic interaction on Analytic Behavior Therapy. It is also presented the different researches regarding the positive and negative effects of the categories orientation, empathy and interpretation. The different results are discussed in terms of data analysis procedures employed. Finally, it is assumed that the impact of therapist's behaviors are influenced by the phase of therapeutic process (beginning, intermediary or final) and the precedent behaviors of the client and therapist.

Indução de controles por seleção e por rejeição em tarefas de emparelhamento com o modelo: Uma revisão metodológica

Em uma tarefa de emparelhamento com o modelo envolvendo duas escolhas, o participante pode aprender tanto a selecionar o estímulo comparação correto (controle por seleção) quanto a rejeitar o incorreto (controle por rejeição). O presente trabalho apresenta uma revisão dos procedimentos que induzir o estabelecimento dos controles por seleção ou por rejeição durante o treino de discriminações condicionais. Dentre os procedimentos revisados estão o uso de diferentes proporções de S+/S-, os procedimentos de dica atrasada e de dica do S+, a realização do treino com máscara e o procedimento de emparelhamento com o modelo com observação requerida (MTS-OR). Alguns parâmetros que podem influenciar o estabelecimento dos controles por seleção e por rejeição, tais como o número de estímulos de comparação apresentados e a topografia de resposta, também são analisados e discutidos. A revisão de diferentes estudos sugere que procedimentos precisam ser combinados para que os controles por seleção ou por rejeição sejam estabelecidos. Além disso, estudos sugerem que a manipulação da observação dos estímulos é uma variável crítica na modelagem desses controles.

In a two-choice matching-to-sample task participants might learn either to select the correct comparison stimulus (select control) or to reject the incorrect one (reject control). This article reviews the procedures used to induce the establishment of select and reject controls during conditional discrimination training. Among the procedures that were reviewed are: the use of different proportions of S+/S-, the delayed cue procedure and the delayed S+ onset, the blank-comparison training and the matching-to-sample task with observing requirements (MTS-OR). Some parameters that might influence the establishment of select and reject controls, such as the number of comparisons and the topography of the response were also analyzed and discussed. The review of different studies suggests that in order to establish select or reject controls, procedures must be combined. Some studies also suggest that the manipulation of the observing response is a critical variable and should be considered while shaping such controls.