Interdisciplinaria

Atitudes toward retirement

Los objetivos del presente trabajo fueron: (1) Comparar las actitudes hacia la jubilación de una muestra de sujetos en las etapas pre y posjubilatoria. (2) Analizar la influencia de ciertas variables tales como: edad, género, estado civil, nivel educacional, nivel ocupacional, grado de conformidad con el monto del haber jubilatorio, grado de satisfacción laboral, percepción de apoyo social, uso del tiempo libre, existencia o no de proyectos para el futuro, nivel de autoestima, etc., sobre las actitudes de ambos grupos hacia la jubilación. (3) Analizar la relación entre ciertas variables de personalidad y las actitudes hacia la jubilación. Dentro de este objetivo se puso a prueba la siguiente hipótesis: Las personas menos afectivas, con un yo más débil, más ansiosas, con tendencia a la culpabilidad y con predominio del control interno o externo poseen actitudes más desfavorables hacia la jubilación, que aquellas personas que son más afectivas, con un yo más fuerte, menos ansiosas, con baja tendencia a la culpabilidad y con equilibrio entre el control interno y externo. Para realizar este estudio se construyeron los siguientes instrumentos de medición: dos cuestionarios de datos personales (uno para las personas que estaban en la etapa prejubilatoria y otro para los jubilados) y dos escalas para medir las actitudes hacia la jubilación, una utilizando el método del diferencial semántico de Osgood, Suci y Tannenbaum (1957) y otra, utilizando el método de intervalos aparentemente iguales de Thurstone y Chave (1937). A fin de analizar la relación entre las actitudes hacia la jubilación y ciertos rasgos de personalidad fueron seleccionados los factores: A (Afectividad), C (Fuerza del yo), O (Tendencia a la culpabilidad) y Q4 (Ansiedad) del Test 16 PF de Cattell, Eber y Tatsuoka (1970). Para analizar la relación entre las actitudes hacia la jubilación y la creencia en el control de los sucesos de la vida cotidiana, se utilizó una versión abreviada de la Escala de Locus de Control de Rotter (1966). Estos instrumentos fueron administrados a una muestra de tipo accidental integrada por 300 personas mayores de 55 años residentes en un gran centro urbano como es la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (República Argentina), el 50% se encontraba en la etapa prejubilatoria y el 50% restante en la posjubilatoria. Se realizó un análisis estadístico multivariado de los datos recogidos. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que la mayoría de las variables consideradas influyen en forma estadísticamente significativa, ya sea en forma favorable o desfavorable, sobre las actitudes hacia la jubilación. Por último, fue corroborada la hipótesis formulada previamente.

This study had the following objectives: (1) To compare attitudes toward retirement in individuals before and after pension is received. (2) To analyze the influence of variables such as age, sex, marital status, education, occupation, agreement with the amount of pension, degree of work satisfaction, perception of social support, use of free time, presence or absence of future projects, level of self-respect, etc., upon the attitudes toward retirement in both groups. (3) To analyze the relationship between attitudes toward retirement and some personality traits. We had the following hypothesis: People with less affection, weak egos, highly anxious, with a tendency to blame themselves, with either more internal or external control, are the ones that show more unfavorable attitudes towards retirement. On the other hand, individuals with high levels of affection, with strong egos, with less anxiety, with lower tendencies to blame themselves, and with a good balance between internal and external control, show more favorable attitudes towards retirement. We designed two questionnaires: one for people before retirement and one for those already retired. The questionnaires were partly structured, with open and closed items, as well as a section for basic data (such as age, sex, marital status, education, and so on). The items in the questionnaires explored the following areas: work activities before retirement or presently, future projects, use of free time and their satisfaction with it, beliefs and level of religiosity, perception of social support, degree to which they agree with the amount of their pension, level of self respect and so on. With the purpose of measuring attitudes toward retirement, we constructed two scales using two methods: Osgood’s differential semantic method (Osgood, Suci & Tannenbaum, 1957) and Thurstone’s apparently equal intervals method (Thurstone & Chave, 1937). The score intercorrelations were factor analyzed, since one of the goals was to find the number of underlying dimensions in the tests, and thus have a validated scale to measure attitudes. To analyze the relationship between attitudes toward retirement and beliefs in the control of everyday life events, we used an abbreviated version based on Rotter’s former scale of locus of control (1966). To study the relationship between attitudes and some personality traits we selected Cattell’s factors of A (Affection), C (Ego strength), O (Guilt tendency), and Q4 (Anxiety) from the 16PF Test (Cattell, Eber & Tatsuoka, 1970). All these instruments were administered randomly to 300 people of ages 55 or more, living in a large urban area such as the city of Buenos Aires (República Argentina), 50% were people before retirement and 50% had already retired. We applied a multivariate statistical analysis on the data. The results showed that most of the variables which were studied have a significant influence, whether positive or negative, upon the attitudes toward retirement. Individuals with a positive attitude towards retirement obtained significantly higher scores in affection, ego strength, and significantly lower scores in guilt tendencies and anxiety compared to those with unfavorable attitudes. Besides, the people that maintain a good balance between internal and external control show more positive attitudes toward retirement than those who show prevalence in either type of control.

Construction of a mathematic test for adolescents and adults

El propósito de este trabajo es presentar un test de matemática construido con una muestra de 564 sujetos, para evaluar los conocimientos matemáticos de jóvenes con estudios secundarios completos o que están cursando el primer año de carreras universitarias. La muestra tiene una edad promedio de 24 años (DE = 8.7 años) y está constituida por un 40% de varones y un 60% de mujeres. El instrumento consta de 50 ítem que evalúan cálculos aritméticos simples, cálculos con decimales, proporciones, regla de tres simple, algunos problemas algebraicos de pasaje de términos y algunos problemas de tipo geométrico. Todos los ítem son de opción múltiple con cuatro alternativas, de las cuales sólo una es la correcta. La media de los puntajes totales es 25.36 (DE = 8.06). Se realizó un análisis de ítem calculando el porcentaje de respuestas correctas para cada uno de ellos, se analizaron los errores y se calculó para cada ítem su correlación con el puntaje total. El resultado del alpha de Cronbach para la confiabilidad total es .936. Para obtener la validez de constructo del test se ha realizado un análisis factorial, en el que sobresale un factor muy claro que satura a una gran cantidad de ítem, en su mayoría de tipo cálculo aritmético, y otros tres factores cuya interpretación es más difícil, que saturan a los ítem en forma mínima. El test mide fundamentalmente, cálculo aritmético, pero un análisis detenido indica que los ítem implican otros procesos inferenciales.

There are three different stages that generally take place while learning mathematics: the first concrete stage is when children learn to add, usually incorporating fingers as the most common object of support; a second pictorial stage or of icons, in which children assimilate a pictorial representation of the concrete object and, finally, an abstract or symbolic stage, in which children handle symbols that represent mathematical quantities. The main goal of this paper is to discuss the construction of a mathematics test for university students administered to a sample of 564 participants. The aim of this study is to evaluate achievements in mathematic abilities of young people that have finished high school and are ready to start university studies. The sample’s mean age was 24 years old with a standard deviation of 8.7 years and was 40% male and 60% female. The test has 50 items that measure simple algorithms for arithmetic problems: some items require the use of decimal numbers, some stress the use of proportions or percentages, and a few others are algebraic and geometric questions. All of the items are multiple choice tasks with four options and only one correct answer. There is no time limit to take the test, but its duration is usually not longer than one hour. The mean of the total scores is 25.36 with a standard deviation of 8.06. The exploratory item analysis shows the percentages of correct answers for each item, as well as the values of item-total correlations. Cronbach’s alpha reliability index is .936. To study the construct validity we factor analyzed the results and came up with one factor that saturates many items of arithmetic calculation type and three other factors which are not very significant. The test measures, fundamentally, arithmetic calculation, but a lengthy analysis indicates that the items imply other inferential processes. The application of this test indicates that it is very difficult to differentiate mathematical abilities from the aptitude to solve new problems, and that, we are actually evaluating an individual’s problem-solving abilities. Such an aptitude improves only with a mathematical instruction centered on the understanding processes, so that if the students are taught to understand the structure and the logic of mathematics, they will have more flexibility and will be more capable of remembering, adapting and organizing data. One of the difficulties observed in the test was that some participants thought that, when multiplying, the values always increase and, when dividing, they always diminish. That is the reason why they struggled so much with decimal exercises. The 50% of the examined participants had difficulties in solving problems with decimals, many had difficulties in finding percentage or interpreting a simple graph of columns. Currently, manual computers are used, but students have difficulties in the interpretation of its results, e.g. when it is presented in mathematical notation. It is very difficult, in this type of test, to differentiate mathematical abilities from mathematical knowledge because it is also important to consider a very strong inferential cognitive aspect.

Leadership prototypes in civilian and military population

El presente estudio pretende identificar (en población civil y militar) los prototipos internalizados de liderazgo, los atributos que tienden a ser asignados a los líderes y las dimensiones de liderazgo privilegiadas en dichos entornos. Participaron 488 cadetes militares (el 64% tenía personal a cargo) y 194 civiles, todos ocupaban cargos directivos y tenían personal a cargo. Se diseñó un instrumento ad-hoc, en el que se solicitaba a los participantes que nombraran a un líder efectivo, justifiquen su elección y señalen en una lista aquellos atributos que creían corresponder al líder elegido. Los resultados señalan que la población militar exhibe preferencia por personajes de trayectoria política y militar. Los civiles mostraron mayor variación en el prototipo de líder elegido, aunque se inclinaron a identificar como tales, a jefes cercanos a su ámbito laboral. Con respecto a los atributos asignados, los civiles identificaron con mayor frecuencia características individualistas como innovación, talento y logro de objetivos; mientras que los militares privilegiaron las características personales asociadas a la relación con el subalterno (consideración, motivación, abnegación). En el ámbito castrense se reconocieron atributos correspondientes al liderazgo orientado al grupo, en tanto los civiles se orientarían hacia un liderazgo carismático. Además, tanto civiles como militares exhibieron una actitud negativa hacia el liderazgo orientado hacia sí mismo. Los resultados obtenidos aportan evidencias sobre la existencia de diferencias significativas en la percepción del liderazgo en ambos contextos ya que se han observado discrepancias en los prototipos de líderes internalizados.

Leadership can be described as a natural process of influence that occurs between one person -the leader- and their followers. This process can be explained through different factors: the characteristics and leader behaviors, follower's perceptions and attributions, and the context in which this process occurs. The characteristics which are attributed to the leader vary across the context in which he or she is immersed, so the followers privilege some attributes above others. Different leadership prototypes can be found in different social groups because they are highly idiosyncratic. The objectives of this research consisted in identifying, in civilian and military population, leadership internalized prototypes, attributes which are frequently assigned to leaders, and leadership dimensions that are privileged in these contexts. Participants of this study were 488 cadets (90% male, 10% female), which were in different stretches of their military career. 64% (n = 312) of cadets directed other people. They were going through the third and fourth year of their military career. They directed groups of five people approximately. The other cadets (36%, n = 176) did not direct people. On the other hand, 194 civilians participated (37% males, 63% females), all of them directed people and occupied management positions. Data collection was realized in an anonymous and collective way using instruments designed ad-hoc, in which the participants were requested to name a person perceived by them as an effective leader and justify their choice. Moreover, the people would have to indicate, in a list, the attributes which they believed corresponded to the selected leader. These attributes were extracted from a larger list of adjectives which was proved, in transcultural studies, to evaluate the implicit leadership theories of effective leaders (Hanges & Dickson, 2004). In a previous study (Castro Solano, 2006) the four dimensions in which these 16 adjectives are structured were verified using factorial analysis. These dimensions are: charismatic leadership, group's oriented leadership, participative leadership, and self's orientated leadership. An analysis of the obtained answers was realized to verify if differences exist between both contexts. In military context there is preference for leaders who have a political or military background. Civilians show more variety in the selected internalized prototypes, but they selected people from their work contexts. In relation to selected attributes by the interviewed people, civilian participants identified individualistic characteristics with greater frequency, as innovation, talent and attainment of objectives; while the military participants assigned greater importance to the characteristics related to the consideration of the followers -consideration, motivation, abnegation. In the military context, attributes related to group orientation were selected; for example participants selected attributes related to effective resources administration, the solving of problems and appropriate group coordination. On the other hand, military and civilian participants, show a negative attitude towards self orientated leadership. This means that a leader shouldn't lack enough explicitness, shouldn't be poorly sociable, lonely, neither competitive with the members of his group. In summary, the results contribute to show evidences on the existence of significant differences in the attribution of leadership in the general population and the military context. Discrepancy was identified between the internalized prototypes of leadership in both contexts. Some limitations of the study are related to the dissimilar number of civilian and military participants, the unequal proportion of men and women and the great heterogeneity of ages. Future studies should revert these limitations. Furthermore, it can be relevant to verify the influence of contextual variables in the conformation of internalized leadership prototypes, as well as to demonstrate if the major congruence between conceptions of followers and the characteristics of their leaders generate more work satisfaction and efficacy.

Measuring differential item functioning in the item response theory

En el estudio del funcionamiento diferencial del ítem (DIF - differential item functioning) la medición de su tamaño proporciona información relevante. Entre las medidas del DIF más utilizadas se encuentra el logaritmo de la razón común de las posibilidades de Mantel-Haenszel (Mantel-Haenszel Log Odds Ratio, MH-LOR). En el trabajo que se informa se analiza la similitud de los resultados al aplicar MH-LOR y una medida obtenida en el marco de la teoría de respuesta al ítem (TRI), a la que se denomina LOR-TRI, sobre datos reales y sobre datos simulados sin DIF. Los datos reales corresponden a una prueba de 20 ítem de razonamiento verbal, respondida por egresados del ciclo medio de enseñanza y por alumnos universitarios. Cada ítem presenta un par de palabras - base entre las cuales existe algún tipo de relación y cuatro opciones de pares de palabras entre las que se debe elegir aquel cuya relación sea la más cercana a la del par base. Para los datos simulados se consideraron las respuestas a un test de 20 ítem generadas según el modelo logístico de tres parámetros. Los grupos fueron elegidos de una población normal estándar con tamaño muestral 1,000 y se efectuaron 100 repeticiones. Tanto para los datos reales como para los simulados el modelo logístico adecuado es el de tres parámetros, sin embargo se observó que el ajuste del modelo de Rasch condujo a resultados de LOR-TRI, similares a MH-LOR. Para los respectivos errores estándar se observó la misma particularidad en cuanto a la similitud, siendo ésta aún más destacada.

In the study of differential item functioning (DIF), measuring its size is of great relevance. An easily interpreted measure is the Mantel-Haenszel Log Odds Ratio (MH-LOR): its sign shows the group which the item favors and its value is zero when the item does not show DIF. This research also considers a measure of DIF named LOR-IRT because it is linked to the log odds ratio and is formulated on the basis of the item parameters within the item response theory (IRT) framework. In order to study the similarity between the LOR-IRT measure according to the number of parameters of the adjusted model and MH-LOR, the DIF was analyzed through real data as well as non-DIF simulated data. The real data consists of a 20-item verbal reasoning test taken by 349 senior high school students and 865 sophomore students from the School of Psychology in the University of Buenos Aires. The simulated data includes answers to a 20-item test based on the three-parameter logistic model for two samples of 1,000 participants from a normal standard population. The parameters of the 20 items under study stem from the combination of four discrimination levels (0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and 1.6) and five difficulty levels (-2, -1, 0, 1 and 2). In order to replicate the conditions of the DIF analysis on the basis of real data, the value of the guessing parameter was set at 0.25 for all the items. Therefore, the chosen design was a 4 X 5 type with 100 repetitions. After analyzing the DIF of the verbal reasoning items on the basis of real data, we concluded that the LOR-IRT obtained upon the adjustment of the one-parameter logistic model (the Rasch model) led to results similar to those of MH-LOR. This statement holds true in the light of the following three facts: there is a 94.44% coincidence in the decisions about the presence of DIF, and both the lower sum of the squared differences and the higher correlation are obtained when compared with the results of the adjustment of the two or three-parameter model. The similarity between the corresponding standard errors is outstanding, the sum of the squared differences is almost zero, and the correlation is remarkably higher than that of the two or three-parameter logistic model. Considering that the verbal reasoning test presents four alternatives of which only one is correct, the items can be modeled according to the three-parameter logistic model, with a non-null guessing parameter. However, the LOR-IRT results are similar to those of MH-LOR in terms of magnitude and standard error when the one-parameter logistic model is adjusted. These results remained the same in the simulation study. In fact, the adjustment of the one-parameter logistic model led to LOR-IRT values which are, on average, similar to those of MH-LOR, and that both the lower sum of the squared differences and the higher correlation are obtained. As for the real data, the similarity between the corresponding standard errors is also outstanding. The sum of the squared differences is almost zero and the regression line is similar to the identity line when the Rasch model is adjusted. The purpose of future research will be to not only study similarities between LOR-IRT and MH-LOR on other designs in terms of test length, group sample size and impact presence, but also to assess their performance in the correct identification of items that show DIF.

Pérez Álvarez, M., Fernández Heredia, J.R., Fernández Rodríguez, C. & Amigo Vázquez, I. (Coords.) (2003). Guía de tratamientos psicológicos eficaces. Vol. 2: Psicología de la salud. España: Ediciones Pirámide, 390 páginas

Dr. Roberto Edgardo Raimondo (1943 - 2007)