Method

Results

The sociodemographic analysis showed that the sample consisted of a majority of females (74.6%, n = 422). Regarding age, which ranged from 18 to over 60 years, there was a predominance of people aged between 25 and 39 years (38.3%, n = 217) and 40 and 59 (36.6%, n = 207). The majority had completed higher education or postgraduate education (74.9%, n = 424).

The respondents lived predominantly in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (62.9%, n = 356) and Minas Gerais (19.8%, n = 112), mainly because they are respectively the states where the first author of this study was born and lives. Regarding the level of SD practiced, from the multiple-choice question with the possibility of multiple answers, it was found that the majority of the respondents (75.6%, n = 428) reported being totally isolated or leaving only when extremely necessary.

A total of 76.0% (n = 430) of the individuals reported being in SD for more than three months, followed by 20.3% (n = 115) who had been for two months. The majority (71.4%, n = 404) reported living with up to three people, with a few living alone (10.6%, n = 60). Furthermore, 59.4% (n = 336) of the households had someone from a risk group. Regarding the financial situation, there was a predominance (38.1%, n = 215) of participants with a family income of more than six minimum wages (BRL 6,234), while a few (5.7%, n = 32) reported having a family income below one minimum wage. The financial impacts due to SD were felt by many of the respondents (72.1%, n = 408), who reported having had some type of loss, but only 9.0% (n = 51) considered that they had suffered a significant loss.

Discussion

Firstly, it is convenient to compare the descriptive statistics of the sample with that of the Brazilian population, as relevant divergences can limit the external validity of a study. The age group distribution was similar to the Brazilian age pyramid (except for considering only those over 18 years old), which has a widening in the age group from 25 to 59 years (^{IBGE, 2020}). The largest groups of respondents were between 25 and 39 years old (38.3%, n = 217) and 40 and 59 (36.6%, n = 207). The mean per capita family income of the respondents, calculated at BRL 1,423.39, was also very close to that presented by the IBGE, of BRL 1,439.00 in 2019 (^{IBGE, 2019}). Another aspect that deserves attention is the predominance (59.4%) of respondents who lived with people of a risk group. A similar pattern was identified in a study carried out by ^{Duarte et al. (2020)}. An important sample bias was the level of education. As it was a survey carried out on the internet, the average level of education tended to be higher when compared to the entire Brazilian population. In addition, due to the social circle of one of the authors, there was a predominance of respondents from Rio Grande do Sul (62.9%, n = 356) and Minas Gerais (19.8%, n = 112) and that were female (74.6%, n = 422).

The age factor proved to be an aspect that provided greater vulnerability to psychological suffering during the period in SD, since the elevation of depressed mood, stress, and anxiety were more expressive among the younger people, data that were also confirmed in other studies (^{Duarte et al., 2020}; Taylor et al., 2008, as cited in ^{Brooks et al., 2020}). One of the factors that could influence this correlation is the more intense use of digital media during this period. Younger age equated to higher use of social media, a behavior that was positively correlated with a self-perception of stress, anxiety, and depressed mood.

Despite these effects, it is important to highlight that there is no doubt about the importance of information and communication technologies during the pandemic, which allows social functioning even with SD, making remote work and distance learning possible, in addition to providing access to entertainment. Furthermore, they provide the population with technical and scientific information about the risks and the best way to protect themselves from the virus (^{Brooks et al., 2020}). However, the negative correlation between the use of social networks and age may be one of the reasons why people of younger ages avoided information about Covid-19 since there is an excess of content on this topic that circulates on these digital platforms, without a great deal of concern regarding the veracity or value of the statements issued.

There is evidence that the increased use of these platforms and greater exposure to information about deaths and infections during the pandemic led to increased suffering and damage to mental health, with the emergence of symptoms of anxiety and depression (^{Gao et al., 2020}; ^{Duarte et al., 2020}). Likewise, excessive exposure to information available on social media can lead to overload and increased risk perception (^{Choi et al., 2017}). Regarding increased risk perception, this was an aspect identified in this study, being negatively correlated with the age factor. When evaluating only people who used social media to keep themselves informed, a positive correlation with risk perception was also evidenced.

However, in the sample studied, a positive correlation was identified between staying informed and depressed mood, stress, anxiety, risk perception, changes in sleep habits, and difficulties working. In turn, the income and education variables showed positive correlations with staying informed, while showing negative correlations with anxiety, stress, and depressed mood. In relation to these data, it is possible to identify that, in this sample, income and education were positively correlated, which leads to the inference that higher levels of education operate as a protective factor against the negative effect of information on Covid-19 since people with a higher level of education have a better ability to filter and interpret the content of the information (^{Gomes et al., 2020}). The ability to critically read the available information also affects the perceived trust in relation to these contents, a conclusion possible due to the level of positive correlation between education and trust in the information, a result of this study.

An example that characterizes this effect of information on people with higher levels of education is the analysis of the fake news phenomenon, in which news with distorted information was disseminated massively during the pandemic. One study found that individuals with higher levels of education and family income are less susceptible to this type of content, as they use their own scientific-based knowledge as a filter to assess veracity (^{Gomes et al., 2020}).

Another aspect that makes some groups more vulnerable to suffering is income. It is known that the Brazilian economic crisis in pandemic times exposes the greater vulnerability of people with low incomes. In this sample, factors such as income and financial loss presented negative correlations, data that show the greater vulnerability of people with lower incomes to the economic impacts during this period. It was also identified that income and age had a positive correlation and that negative correlations were found between age, financial concerns, and concerns about job stability. Therefore, it is evident that people with lower incomes, such as the younger people in this study, were more concerned about the financial effects of the confinement.

In relation to this result, a study carried out with 33,688 young people from each state of the country revealed that more than half of the sample registered to receive the emergency financial aid distributed by the government during the pandemic. For every ten young people, four had some financial loss, and many had to resort to alternatives to supplement their income (^{Conselho Nacional de Juventude, 2020}).

Although the pandemic has accentuated financial difficulties among young people, the origin of this problem is old, as this age group has long suffered from the weaknesses that permeate their work context. According to the ^{IBGE (2019)}, the greater vulnerability of young people in the labor market is already an issue discussed and documented in reports by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. In Brazil, a survey carried out by the IBGE in 2018 showed that the highest rates of unemployment and underutilization of the workforce are among individuals between 14 and 29 years old.

Faced with a scenario of economic crisis, with increasing poverty and unemployment, the population is expected to fear and feel insecure in relation to keeping their jobs and their own lives, as identified in the sample studied. Some authors highlight positive correlations between the impact on income during the pandemic and the perception of psychological distress (^{Duarte et al., 2020}; Jeong, 2016, as cited in ^{Brooks et al. 2020}). ^{Bezerra et al. (2020)} also explored an issue that was not evaluated in this study but that is directly related to the socioeconomic conditions of families, which is the comfort and quality of the housing. The data showed that, at houses with a better quality, the levels of stress perceived among the residents were lower. In addition, housing quality affects how much people are willing to remain in SD, with those who considered their houses good or excellent being more willing to remain in SD for as long as it was necessary. Therefore, it can be concluded that income is a determining element in complying with SD measures, with a strong influence on the way people perceive their emotional states during this period.

One way used to guarantee the income of the poorest households and prevent even greater chaos during the pandemic was the distribution of emergency financial aid during this period (^{Trovão, 2020}). Although fundamental, the aid distributed in Brazil presented weaknesses. The low value distributed, the delay and bureaucracy for the effectiveness of access, and the inability to preserve jobs made it impossible to guarantee the livelihood of those who suffered most from the crisis (^{Trovão, 2020}). In this scenario, the urgent need for State action to ensure the most vulnerable population has sufficient financial support to go through the restrictive measures is also a necessary condition for the maintenance of these people’s mental health.

In relation to work issues, another point to be addressed here refers to the challenges experienced in working from home. Concerns about maintaining productivity through remote work, work overload, and difficulties in the performance of work activities were, on average, more pronounced among young people, and all these variables showed positive correlations with stress, anxiety, and depressed mood. These issues were not experienced only by the sample in this study. A study carried out with 32 students aged between 23 and 30 years showed that 50% of the participants experienced difficulties in the performance of work activities while working at home, 75% noticed an increase in the level of demand related to work in the previous months, 53% perceived their period of work during the home office as long and exhausting, and 50% faced health problems (^{Miranda, 2020}).

In an interview with BBC World, the psychology professor and specialist in stress and trauma Elke Van Hoof, stated that the first psychological consequence of restrictive measures can be the feeling of overload and not being able to deal with obligations (^{Llorente, 2020}). The author emphasized that the lack of attention to psychological care by the authorities will have consequences both in the health area and economic sector, after the end of the SD. The reason for this is that the suffering resulting from stress and exhaustion during this period will be responsible for illness in the population, affecting the availability of people to work and, consequently, the recovery of the economy after the pandemic (^{Llorente, 2020}).

One aspect that can generate overload and make adaptation to working from home even more complex is the dependence on social media, as highlighted by the study by ^{Beyens et al. (2016)}, in which the fear of missing out (FoMO) was found to cause psychological effects in individuals who access Facebook excessively. Other social media are also related to this phenomenon. The FoMO is an exacerbated feeling that arises when a person thinks that other more interesting events are happening elsewhere. The authors emphasized that the greater need for belonging and popularity in young people determines greater use of the social media and that this relationship is mediated by the FoMO, which, in turn, is associated with higher levels of stress.

A negative correlation between age and sleep disorders was also evaluated. In relation to this, a European study indicates that sleep habits undergo changes during SD due to factors such as reduced exposure to the sun, reduced physical activity, and psychological distress (^{Altena et al., 2020}). In addition, the lack of social Zeitgebers, such as the hours that mark the work and/or study routine, and abrupt changes in living conditions significantly affect sleep habits (^{Cellini et al., 2020}). Individuals with impaired sleep can become more stressed and develop compulsions, as a maladaptive way of coping with suffering, as verified in the study sample. Accordingly, the need to adapt and maintain time to sleep, eat, work, rest, exercise, and sunbathe are fundamental strategies for the preservation of circadian rhythms and the maintenance of mental health (^{Cellini et al., 2020}).

Final considerations

The results presented respond to the initial aims of this study, which sought to identify factors that cause greater vulnerability to psychological suffering during SD.

Among the factors of greater vulnerability identified, younger age and reduced income, financial losses during this period, increased use of social media, greater contact with information related to the pandemic, and greater accumulation of work during remote activities stand out. All these aspects showed positive correlations with self-perceived stress, anxiety, and depressed mood.

The SD measures, although necessary, have led to several negative changes in lifestyles. In this context full of losses and suffering, inequalities were accentuated, putting some groups at a greater disadvantage in terms of psychosocial conditions to adhere to the recommended strategies. Accordingly, considering the factors that make some people more vulnerable to psychological suffering during this period is a necessary strategy to contemplate more appropriate and efficient mental health care actions.

Finally, it should be emphasized that it is not possible to construct perfectly representative samples of the population only with data from surveys carried out on the internet since not all of the population has access to the it. Some predominant characteristics of this sample, such as the level of education, the female gender, as well as the geographic location of the respondents, could hinder the generalization of the findings for the entire Brazilian population. Furthermore, a restriction inherent to questionnaires is the fact that people can lie, cheat, or deceive themselves when responding.

As a way to complement this study, personal and detailed reports of the experience with SD would provide a greater comprehension of these findings. It is suggested that future studies consider conducting interviews with open questions with some of the individuals that were in this condition, in order to contribute to scientific knowledge in the area.