Participants

The study included 10 adolescents who were sons or daughters of single mothers, four men and six women. The participants were aged between 15 and 20 years and had not experienced any family configuration other than the female single parent. All adolescents participating in the research lived in a municipality in the interior of Rio Grande do Sul. Some maintained occasional and sporadic contact with their father. Regarding the race/ethnicity of the participants, 7 were considered white and 3 brown.

Regarding the age criterion, we opted for the one stipulated by the ^{World Health Organization (1965)}, which characterizes an adolescent as one aged between 10 and 20 years old, and which refers to the second decade of the subject’s life. All adolescents were 15 years of age or older, characterized as in their late adolescence (^{Outeiral, 1994}). This delimitation was relevant for the participants to have time of family experience as an adolescent in their families.

Table 1 presents the characterization of the study participants, as well as their families. It is noteworthy that, in order to preserve identities, the participants will be identified from the letter A, for Adolescent, accompanied by the number in which the interviews took place.

Outline

Qualitative research is, for ^{Minayo (2014)}, related to the understanding of human beings and their relationships, correlating with their meanings, experiences and values. It aims at categorizing, understanding and interpreting the studied phenomenon.

The research also had a descriptive exploratory character. As ^{Gil (2010)} argues, it is descriptive because it intended to analyze the description of characteristics, or of some phenomenon. Finally, its exploratory character is due to the intention of explaining the phenomenon in question and becoming familiar with it.

Procedures and Instruments

Having received a favorable opinion from the Research Ethics Committee (CEP), under CAAE number: 58459322.2.0000.5346, the participants were contacted through the social network WhatsApp, followed by the dissemination of the research on other social networks, such as Instagram and Facebook, or by referrals. Data collection took place virtually with seven participants and in person with three participants, according to the preference and availability of the adolescents in question. The virtual meetings took place through the Google Meet application, and the face-to-face meetings were held on the premises of the university to which the researcher is linked. Based on what was proposed in the theory of the mature minor (^{Cornock, 2007}), it was possible to obtain exemption from the signature of the informed consent form by the mothers of the adolescents and the adolescents signed the Term of Assent, shared through the online platform Google Forms.

The instruments used to carry out the research were the Sociodemographic Data Sheet, with the characterization of the participants, as well as their family life context and their mothers. In addition, an Interview about the Experience of being an adolescent child in a single mother’s family was used. This was organized and applied in a semi-structured way, with the purpose of understanding the constructions about their own adolescence, as well as about experiences related to the routine and relationship with their mothers. The interviews lasted about 1h30min and were recorded in audio and later transcribed for analysis.

Ethical Considerations

The ethical precepts established by Resolutions No. 466 of 2012 and No. 510 of 2016, which regulate research with human beings and, especially, in Social Sciences and Humanities (^{Brazil, 2016}), in addition to the guidelines of the National Research Ethics Commission for studies in virtual environments (^{Ministry of Health, 2021}), were contemplated. It is noteworthy that for the study participants, the confidentiality of the data was guaranteed, as well as their privacy and the possibility of withdrawing their participation in the research at any time. Finally, information on the risks and benefits of the research was also passed on.

Data analysis

For the analysis of the data obtained through the interviews, ^{Bardin’s (2011)} content analysis was used. This methodology intends, through systematic procedures, to search for meanings and understandings common to the data obtained, and to define categories to be analyzed and discussed. From the transcribed interviews, we sought to identify units of meaning, with the aim of constituting the thematic categories, in order to have a better understanding and synthesis of the results. At the end of this analysis, the results were organized into the following categories: (1) Adolescence and self-perception and (2) Child-single mother relationship.

Adolescence and self-perception

Regarding the experience of adolescence, some participants reported leaving their mother’s house (due to entering university) or entering the labor market and the Brazilian army as important milestones of adolescence and approach to adulthood, associated with new demands and developmental tasks: “It was extremely difficult for me (to adapt to the new routine living without my mother). I had never needed it, and I went to a psychiatrist, because it was something that really took me off track completely. And all this changed at once, because I got in (at the university). So, at the end of March, beginning of April, there was class already and everything is different, everything new. So, it was very tiring mentally, physically too, because it’s another routine. It’s completely different” (A4). “For me, it’s good (the responsibilities he assumes at home), because he teaches me, in adult life, practically. And it creates responsibility and discipline as well” (A7). “It was a new opportunity for me. As I didn’t work with a formal contract and earned little money, going to the army was the best thing that happened to me” (A8). One participant indicated a perception of himself as entering adult life, or, at least, rehearsing himself for it from the association of responsibilities in the world of work: “This year, I’m stressing out a lot, because I had never worked. And at the army, things are going very fast. So, I’m just adapting, in terms of problems, these things in adult life. [...] It’s just that I’m just starting my adult life, so I’m trying to avoid problems, inside and outside the army. My professionalism and those things” (A9). This view of the self is in line with the literature, which says that in the family with adolescent children, changes occur in structural terms and in the renegotiation of family roles, since adolescents seek greater autonomy and independence (^{Luisi & Cangelli Filho, 1997}).

Yet, it can be conjectured that, because they were single mothers, the adolescents under discussion in the present study experienced the need to become more participative and responsible in activities that other children could be spared. The adolescents also reported a positive view of their participation and contribution to their families. They indicated a sense of belonging and importance and collaboration for their families, just as their mothers were perceived by them.

“Sometimes I make the right decisions, sometimes the wrong ones. I help in whatever way I can. If I have something left over, I help. I help with my knowledge, I help with something material, something I have. I’m a humble person, a present person, if you call me I’m there too. A person who helps practically within my family” (A7); “I think this is very important, even so as not to overload her (mother), because this also helps us to understand a little of people’s real lives. You’re already kind of getting used to it. Like, there was a time when I had to make food, because my mother would go on a trip and she would come back a little late, I would make lunch. Or, when she was there (at work), doing shifts, then I would come home and make the food. So, these are the few things that are already preparing me for adulthood. I already know how to cook, I already know how to wash the dishes, dry the clothes, sweep the house, which I see is not very common nowadays. I had a colleague of mine, who had never picked up a piece of clothing in his life. He never washed a dish. I was like, ‘My God, I’ve been doing this for as long as I can remember’” (A5).

According to ^{Arnett (2000)}, the period up to the age of twenty, corresponding to the final years of adolescence, is significant and lived with profound changes. Many achieve the level of education and training required for working life. Before many young people make far-reaching life choices, at the age of 20, they will go through an intense period of experimentation. In this sense, ^{Ponciano and Féres-Carneiro (2014)}, based on a study with fathers and mothers who had children between 15 and 26 years of age, highlight the relevance of the active presence of fathers/mothers in this period of transition to adult life, by promoting support for the growth and autonomy of their children.

Some participants also referred to conflicts and misunderstandings experienced in the relationship with their mother in view of the growing need for differentiation and autonomy experienced by them, and some of the conflicts were seen differently at the aforementioned moment: “It’s just that I think she cares a lot about me. I say that she is very owlish. She looks at my phone every day. She says that I don’t have the right to privacy, then looks at my conversations. Then if I go out, she knows, obviously, that not every mother has to talk to who she is going out with, where she is going, when she is coming back. I don’t like it very much; I say that I can’t have even a little privacy. And there are times that, for example, I have to delete a message, because it’s something from my friends who are crying and want to tell me something. And then they say: ‘Oh, don’t tell anyone’. Then, I have to go there and delete it. Then, afterwards, she curses me and argues with me” (A5). “In the beginning, when I was entering (adolescence), about fifteen, sixteen, I was getting a little rebellious. Then, my father was not with us, he thought that if he had him with us, he would change something. I blamed her (the mother). Then, I grew up and realized it was entirely different. Whatever she told me was right. It was more there in adolescence that it got a little complicated, but then it was better” (A8).

Concerning this issue, ^{Segrin and Flora (2018)} argue that the conflicting relationship between fathers/mothers and children can be considered normative in adolescence and can even promote adjustments for role renegotiations. Adolescents experience conflicting feelings towards their parents, as they seek freedom and autonomy in various areas of their lives. It is a process marked by new discoveries that reside strongly in the exploration of identity constructions (^{Watari & Romanelli, 2005}). For ^{Branje et al. (2012)}, conflicts originating in adolescence help to strengthen affective bonds between fathers/mothers and children, both in the short and long term, while they can encourage communication about the relationship.

It is emphasized, however, that adolescence will not necessarily be characterized by conflict, as a troubled stage of development, varying according to society, culture and time. In a study carried out with 295 adolescents from the city of Porto Alegre (RS), ^{Wagner, Falcke, Silveira and Mosmann (2002)} found that the communication that adolescents established with their families was considered by them as good, contrary to the often-stereotyped view that associate’s adolescence with family problems and conflicts. On the other hand, this does not mean disregarding a degree of suffering that goes beyond what is expected for the stage of development, associated with emotional disorders and deeper relational difficulties: “In my adolescence, I ended up developing depression, because of my mother, because she was treated as a second option. I isolated myself from the world in my room. There was a phase when I even cut myself, because my mother fought with me a lot, a lot, a lot. It was in my teenage years. I did things in secret, I wanted to go out, I wanted to drink, to try to find a point of escape. [...] Look, I believe that I learned to cope, because I think that I don’t have to be dependent on my mother. Because before, anything she said, or spoke badly to me, I was already bad, I was already sad. I believe that these are phases that come and go, according to my relationship with my mother, with my father, in my life. But I never sought treatment” (A10).

Similar results were found in the study by ^{Mesquita et al. (2011)}, conducted with 408 adolescents aged 15 to 22, in the north of Portugal. Although almost all adolescents reported the presence of some depressive symptom, self-mutilation or the desire to die, the relationship with their parents was associated with the way the participants reacted and the degree to which they presented such behaviors. For ^{Baptista, Baptista and Dias (2001)}, the relevance of the quality of family functioning as a factor of influence on adolescent mental health should be considered. Dissatisfaction with the family environment and the lack of adequate conditions for development may be associated with the emergence of symptoms and psychopathologies in adolescence.

Child-single mother relationship

In the understanding of the adolescents participating in the research, in general, they maintained a positive relationship with their mothers. For some, the mothers played a central role in their lives and in their relationships, indicating a bond of great closeness and companionship: “It is inexplicable, so to speak, our company. We’re always together. I think that specially because of this lack of paternal presence, we have created a much, much stronger bond. [...] The relationship I have with my mother is something incredible. Obviously, every now and then, there are some fights and such, some disagreements. But overall, it is very positive. Very positive. My mother and I have always been very close, since we were children” (A6); “For me it is very important. I don’t really know what I’d be without her, what person I’d be, you know. Like, if I were raised by my father, I believe that I would be a lost person like that, of studying, of wanting something with life, of having a goal. I believe that this is why she is very important to me” (A10).

According to ^{Teperman et al. (2020)}, a harmonious relationship between fathers/mothers and children helps children grow up with confidence, security, and autonomy, as they develop the ability to respect others, as well as being more apt to recognize what is important for their lives. In this sense, ^{Nolte and Harris (2005)} argue that, when the family home represents a safe place for adolescents, the children are strengthened to deal with life’s adversities. Still, for ^{Camarano (2006)}, children only achieve independence and autonomy from a condition of dependence, which can bring them feelings of security and support, as they are able to express themselves and be who they truly are. It is believed that the dependence and independence of parents relate to each other and help individuals to develop and grow.

Some study participants also indicate open communication and a close mother-child relationship: “It’s very good, actually. I’m very close to my mother. So, we do practically everything together when we have time. On weekends, we stay together. [...] Nowadays, the relationship is very open, we talk about everything, relationships, college, everything. I like that it’s a very open relationship, and that I feel like I can tell her everything, and that she can also tell me everything. So, when she has a problem, she comes and talks to me, especially when it’s a work problem, she comes and talks to me. And it’s the same thing I do with her” (A1); “Usually, on weekends, I stay at home. So, we have greater contact. Now, lately, we haven’t been watching movies, spending so much time together, but we do what we can, we go cook together, do something like that, and go out together. We go out together a lot. I’m like her partner and vice versa, she’s my partner. So much so that, sometimes, we look at each other like this: ‘Let’s drink? Let’s go.’, like, then we go to the bar, go somewhere else. Pretty cool. It’s more our company” (A6). “Her concern, she cares about what I... Sometimes, I get home, I say it wasn’t a good day, then she gets worried” (A9).

In the study by ^{Wagner et al. (2002)}, the mother was also mentioned as the person in the family with whom the adolescent children talked the most, followed by the father and then siblings. They also highlighted a good level of communication at home and classified it as very important. The study evidenced the traditional conception of the mother’s role as responsible for the care and mediation of family relationships. The father, although he occupied a secondary position in the adolescent’s life, was evaluated positively by the adolescents.

The dialogue between fathers/mothers and adolescent children is configured as an extra challenge to the relationship; However, it is through it that the family can redirect the social representations of parents and children, especially when it prioritizes the transmission of affection, through respect and care (^{Morgado et al., 2014}). Good communication between parents and children has a positive impact on the health of adolescents, being associated with a higher quality of life and less presence of health symptoms in children (^{Tomé et al., 2012}). Thus, communication is an important dimension of family functioning. It would be linked to the development of positive self-esteem, an autonomous and independent identity. In these family contexts, adolescents tend to value the parents’ concern for their well-being, stimulate the child’s satisfaction with the family environment and, consequently, favor less involvement in risk behaviors (^{Riesch et al., 2006}; ^{Sprinthall & Collins, 2003}; ^{Yu et al., 2006}).

When considering mother-child proximity, a certain idealization of the relationship is identified by the adolescents in the study. In this regard, while mothers and fathers of adolescent children need to be available to the movements of approximation and distancing of their children, it is worth highlighting the care so that children do not assume a place of “partners” or “companions” of their mothers, and may feel free to make new relational investments outside the family group and even conflict with parental figures. It may be that the children of solo mother feel more called upon to provide social support for their mothers, facing greater difficulties in breaking or moving away from the maternal figure, even temporarily, due to the new investments of adolescence.

For some participants, the mother clearly indicated that she could not assume the role of friend alone, needing to preserve the maternal role in the relationship with the child: “Then you try to understand yourself, you have a friend. And sometimes all this together, it doesn’t work very well. I tell her that I would just like her to be my friend, in that sense. Obviously, it’s my mother. But she’s a person, she says she can’t be my friend. That, in principle, she is my mother” (A5).

Some of the adolescents also reported a certain affective distance or reserve in relation to their mothers. For them, their investment in the relationship existed, but was often not perceived as reciprocated by their mothers: “My relationship with my mother is not bad, it is good. She’s a super open-minded person, she’s a person who I know likes me a lot, who wants my best, but sometimes I feel that, now I don’t feel so much anymore, but I felt that there was a barrier between us and that she didn’t care much. (...) And I feel like I can say anything to her. But I end up not talking, many times. I don’t know” (A2); “It’s not 100% (the mother-child relationship). I get home, sometimes I say that I did this, that I stopped doing that, then there is cursing, these things, but I get used to it now” (A9); “I think we always try to understand each other. It turns out that one hour always gives in. Normally, it’s me, but we try not to get into a fight. We usually fight a lot, but we try not to get angry. Usually, I get out of punishment. I don’t know if I lack confidence, or in her, or if something else. Normally, I figure things out on my own, and she snoops around on things” (A5).

For ^{Delgado and Jiménez (2004)}, once conflicts in the family are well addressed, they tend to have a positive influence on relationships, since they can act as catalysts, helping in the process of adjustment of family relationships. In this way, discussions and conflicts can serve to make parents realize that their children are developing, and that they need a different treatment from what they received in childhood. For some families, adolescence can be characterized as a difficult period for both children and parents, so that communication is also impaired at certain times. The lack of communication between parents and children is linked to changes in interaction patterns, and therefore, the family will need to make these patterns more flexible when adapting to a new functioning, so that it can offer an environment that promotes the growth and development of its adolescent children (^{Barnes & Olson, 1985}; ^{Steinberg, 1981}).

^{Adams and Laursen (2007)}, in their study with 469 adolescents in Florida (USA), found that the consequences of the conflict of adolescents with their mothers, fathers and best friends depended on the quality of the relationship. Moderate conflict was associated with favorable outcomesonly in adolescents who had low levels of perceived negativity. Excessive conflict, on the other hand, was linked to social and academic difficulties, even for adolescents who had the best social relationships. In this way, the disagreement was not harmful in itself. However, its consequences depended on the frequency in which they occurred and with whom it is experienced. Finally, in the study by ^{Peixoto (2004)}, with 265 adolescents from Lisbon (PT), the author identified that a better resolution of family conflicts was associated with the construction of a positive self-image of adolescents.